翻译(2-1)
1) While there are almost as many definitions of history as there are historians, modern practice most closely conforms to one that sees history as the attempt to recreate and explain the significant events of the past. Caught in the web of its own time and place, each generation of historians determines anew what is significant for it in the past. In this search the evidence found is always incomplete and scattered; it is also frequently partial or partisan. The irony of the historian's craft is that its practitioners always know that their efforts are but contributions to an unending process.
正如对历史学家有诸多定义一样,对于历史的定义也众说纷纭.当今的理论大多数都赞成这样一种观念,那就是历史是试图对那些过去发生的重大历史事件的重现和解释.在它所属的时代和地点,每一代历史学家都将发生在已逝去年代中的具有重要意义的事件定义为历史重现.在此搜索到的证据总是不太完整并且显得零碎,而且证据也经常被片面化或者有党派之分.对历史学家的工作具有讽刺意味的是实践者们一贯知道他们的工作只不过是对一个没有终结的过程所作的绵薄之力.
2) Interest in historical methods has arisen less through external challenge to the validity of history as an intellectual discipline and more from internal quarrels among historians themselves. While history once revered its affinity to literature and philosophy, the emerging social sciences seemed to afford greater opportunities for asking new questions and providing rewarding approaches to an understanding of the past. Social science methodologies had to be adapted to a discipline governed by the primacy of historical sources rather than the imperatives of the contemporary world.
人们通过对历史这样一门睿智学科的有效性的外部挑战而引起的对历史方法的兴趣越来越少,更多的是在历史学家们之间的内部争论中产生的. 当历史一度颠倒文学和哲学的时候, 新兴的社会科学企图提供更多的机会可以让人们提出新的问题,能对历史的理解提供更有裨益的方法.社会科学方必须去适应那么被主流历史根源制约的制度,而不是当今世界的迫切需要.
3) During this transfer, traditional historical methods were augmented by additional methodologies designed to interpret the new forms of evidence in the historical study. Methodology is a term that remains inherently ambiguous in the historical profession.
在这个转变过程中, 传统的历史方法通过补充方法得以加强,这些补充方法是被设计用来诠释在历史学习中以新形式出现的证据.从历史专业角度来, 方本质上只是一个模棱两可的术语.
4 )There is no agreement whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate to the various branches of historical inquiry, and historians, especially those so blinded by their research interests that they have been accused of "tunnel method , " frequently fall victim to the "technicist fallacy. " Also common in the natural sciences, the technicist fallacy mistakenly identifies the discipline as a whole with certain parts of its technical implementation.
对于方法是指那些普遍和历史工作 观念
没有协议的方法,是否指的是特有的概念,在一般或研究方法适合于历史调查的各部门,历史学家,特别是使他们的研究利益蒙住了眼睛,他们一直是“被告的历史隧道的工作方法,“经常牺牲品”技术人才的谬论。“另外,在共同的自然科学,技术人才的谬误,错误的标识为同其技术执行某些地区整体的纪律。
技术员的谬论被错误的拿来定义规章制度
5 ) It applies equally to traditional historians who view history as only the external and internal criticism of sources, and to social science historians who equate their activity with specific techniques.
这个方法适用于传统的历史学家,也同样适用于社会科学历史学家。前者认为历史只是批评和自我批评,而后者则将他们的行为和特定技术等同起来。
翻译(2-2)
We should try to make our judgments of performance reflect, and be seen to reflect, assessments of strengths and weaknesses, successes and errors. Our praise is at least as important as criticism, for it reinforces successful behavior, strengthens the confidence needed to tackle difficulties, and provides assurance that the World Bank recognizes accomplishments as well as mistakes.
In discussing performance with our staff, we should stress the importance of effective cooperation and individual effort. If team work has produced good results, we should give special recognition to the people involved. And as a matter of course, we should invite comments from all those who have supervised our staff on major tasks. This produces a richer picture of performance than one manager can provide, and reduces the influence of personal chemistry on judgments of performance. (134)
我们对于工作表现作出的判断应该体现,并且能够对优势和弱点,成功和失误作出正确的评估。我们的赞美也和批评一样重要,因为赞美可以强调成功的行为,提升了克服困难的自信心,并且为世界银行认知成功和失败提供了保障。
在与我们的员工讨论工作表现时,我们需要强调有效合作和个人努力的重要性。如果团队业绩很好,我们应该给与那些参与员工以特别的奖赏。理所当然,我们也需要聆听所有那些监管主要任务人员的评论。这样做可以对员工的工作表现得到一个更加全面系统的认知,而非一个经理人的片言只语,并且可以减少评估中的个人偏见。
翻译(2-3)
电子商务可以从广义或狭义上来理解。前者是指通过沟通和商务技术开展的所有商务活动。根据这一定义,一笔交易可以通过电话、传真、信用卡、电视购物以及互联网来进行。电子商务的狭义定义则不同,它仅指借助互联网而进行的商务活动。
从经济学的角度来看,电子商务通过与世界各地的计算机联网,以很低的成本开展企业原先要化很多时间和金钱来从事的活动。诸如产品促销、给商品开具、库存控制、与供应商和客户的沟通等活动都可以在互联网上完成。
市场过去给小企业所留的空间十分有限。然而,对电子商务来说,情况就不同了。在电子商务中, 公司不论大小,只要能上电子高速公路,便可以开展业务。由电子商务的消费者决定他们喜欢哪家公司以及什么产品。在某种意义上,我们可以说电子商务给企业带来了一种全方位的“”。遗憾的是,为数不少的公司至今尚未意识到电子商务的意义,更谈不上采取实际的步骤去迎接挑战了。
E-commerce can be understood broadly or narrowly. The former refers to all business activities conducted through the communication and commerce technology. According to this definition, a deal could be done by phone, fax, credit cards, TV shopping and Internet. A narrow definition of e-business is different, which only refers to the business activities carried out by Internet.
From the view of economics, e-commerce taking the advantage of connecting to the computers all over the world extends the business at the lower cost than before that company should have spend much more time and money. All such kind of activities like product promotion, issuing the invoice for merchandise, inventory control, communication between suppliers and customers and other activities can be completed on the Internet.
The space that market yielded to small enterprises is very limited in the past. However, the situation is different in the circumstance of e-commerce. In e-commerce, whether the company is big or small, they can conduct business as long as they can roll into the electronic highway. The e-commerce consumers decide which company and what kind of products they like. In a sense, we could say that e-commerce has brought the enterprise an encompassing "revolution”. Unfortunately, a large number of companies haven’t been aware of the significance of e-commerce so far, let alone to take practical strategies to embrace the challenge.