并列平行结构Co-ordination Constructions
“并列平行结构”是一个比较笼统的提法。事实上,在一个较长的英语句子中,并列平行的部分可能是几个句子,也可能是几个并列的短语成分。但是,其构成规律都可用以下句型来表示:
句型I. A;B ( 其中A和B代表两个并列分句,或是两个并列的短语)
句型II A,whereas/while B(其中A和B代表两个并列分句,或是两个并列的短语,where as/ while 为联结词)
句型III A(,)and /or B(其中A和B代表两个并列分句,或是两个并列的短语;逗号有时可以没有,在肯定句中,多用and来连接,而在否定句中,多用or来连接)
句型IV A,B,....and/orX(其中A和B代表多个并列分句,或是多个并列短语;在肯定句中,常用and连接,而在否定句中,常用or来连接)
Insurance is compulsory and costly and parking both on and off campus can be problem requiring additional expense.
译文
保险是必需的而且费用很高;在校园内外停车可能是个问题,会要求额外的费用。
Geologists believe that the warning signs for a major earthquake may include sudden fluctuations in local seismic activity, tilting and other deformations of the Earth’s crust, changes in the measured strain across a fault zone, and variations in the electrical properties of underground rocks.
分析
Step 1
从前往后阅读该句时,不难看出此句是由Geologists believe that + 宾语从句构成的主干结构,而且宾语从句的主语,谓语部分也很清楚,即:the warning signs for a major earthquake may include……. 现在的关键是把include 后面的宾语部分弄清楚。
Step 2 对于include 后面的宾语部分,即:sudden fluctuations in local seismic activity, tilting and other deformations of the Earth’s crust, changes in the measured strain across a fault zone, and variations in the electrical properties of underground rocks,谁与谁是并列平行呢?我们不妨用上面所讲的方法来分析一下。很容易,我们能发现这种情况是属于句型IV. 也就是说,要先找到连接词and 之后的那一个成分,然后以该成分的意思为出发点,从后往前,以逗号为停顿段开点来倒着找,最终逐个找出与该词在意思上平行的其他多个各并列成分。
Step 3 显然,连接词and之后的那一个成分是:variations in the electrical properties of underground rocks.然后,以该句的意思为出发点,从后往前,以逗号为停顿段开点来倒着找,我们分别找到了:sudden fluctuations in local seismic activity, tilting and other deformations of the Earth’s crust, 以及changes in the measured strain across a fault zone这三个相对的词群。这样,我们就找到了the warning signs for a major earthquake may include 之后的4个并列平行成分, 即:(1)sudden fluctuations in local seismic activity,(2)tilting and other deformations of the Earth’s crust,(3)changes in the measured strain across a fault zone,(4)and variations in the electrical properties of underground rocks.
Step 4
最后,我们把刚才的分析连起来理解,不难发现这个长句的结构是这样的:主语+ 谓语+从句(宾语从句主语+宾语从句谓语+宾语从句宾语A+宾语从句宾语B+宾语从句宾语C+宾语从句宾语D)
译文
地质学家们相信大地震的警告信号包括:当地地震活动的突然波动,地壳倾斜或其它的变形,跨断层处测出的张力的改变,以及地下岩石的电厂性质的变动。
练习题:
1. The medieval scholar made almost no attempt to investigate the anatomy of plants, their mechanisms of growth, or the ways in which they are related to one another
分析
investigate 后所带的宾语是3 个平行并列成分,它们的排列类型符合句型IV,即:A,B,or C。具体来说这3 个成分分别是:(1)the anatomy of plants, (2) their mechanisms of growth,(3) or the ways in which they are related to one another.因为该句的谓语带有否定含词no,所以用or而不是and来把第3个并列成分和前2个连起来。
译文
那位中世纪的学者几乎没有尝试着去调查植物的解剖结构,生长机制,以及它们相互之间是如何联系在一起的。
2. While some students are able to supplement their funds with money from part-time or vacation work, such work is not always regular even when available, and this can contribute to anxiety and study problems.
分析
先将while 所引导的从句部分略读,阅读主句时,可以发现它是由2个并列句组成,即(1)
such work is not always regular even when available,(2)and this can contribute to anxiety and study problems.
译文
尽管一些学生能用兼职或者假期打I挣的钱老资助自己上学,但是 这样的I作即使能找到,也不能保证定期都有,这样就可能会给学生带来焦虑和学习上的问题。
3. Already, waste paper constitutes 70%of paper used for packaging and advances in the technology required to remove ink from the paper have allowed a higher recycled content in newsprint and writing.
分析
表面上看,该句中的第1个and 很容易被误以为是连接constitutes 和advances 这两个并列成分, 仔细看
时,会发现那样的话,就有2个不妥之处:首先,如果constitutes 和advances真是并列平行关系,在该句中的waste paper 的谓语,那么waste paper advances 的说法在逻辑上不太恰当;其次,如果advances是前一句的谓语动词,那么其后的一系列谓语动词,如have allowed,就找不着相应的搭配关系了。所以该句中的第1个land不是连接constitutes和advances这两个词。
这时,我们在这个and处画个记号,然后把constitutes和advances这2个词段开,constitutes往前一句里放,advances则往后面的内容里放。此时,我们才发现原来这个长句是由and连接起来的2个并列句,即:(1)Already, waste paper constitutes 70%of paper used for packaging(2)and advances in the technology required to remove ink from the paper have allowed a higher recycled content in newsprint and writing.
译文
废纸已经构成了70%的包装用纸;纸张去墨技术的进步已使得新闻I出版和书写用纸的循环利用的合量更高。
分词短语
Participle phrases &nominatives absolute
例1.When he was playing basketball, tom saw a stranger who entered the classroom.
如上文所述,前一个分句的主语he和后一个主语tom指同一个人,并且前一个分句的主语he 之后是系动词was, 那么,前一个分句的主语和紧随其后的那个系动词was都可以一起省略掉,也就是说,此句可以省略成一个带有现在分词短语的单句,即:playing basketball, tom saw a stranger who entered the classroom.
例3:Located on the south-east coast of Australia in the temperate zone, it enjoys a mild climate, averaging 14.5 hours of sunshine per day in summer and 10.25 hours in winter.
实际上,此句的完整说法应该是:(it is )located on the south-east coast of Australia in the temperate zone, (and) it enjoyed a mild climate, (which averages) 14.5 hours of sunshine per day in summer and 10.25 hours in winter.因为(it is)located on the south-east coast of Australia in the temperate zone, (and) it enjoyed a mild climate, 之间的主语相同,都是it,并且前一个分句的主语it 之后是系动词is,那么,前一个分句的主语和紧随其后的那个系动词is 都可以省略掉, 也就是说,此句可以省略成一个带有过去分词短语的单句,表示两者是被动关系,即:Located on the south-east coast of Australia in the temperate zone, it enjoyed a mild climate.
练习题:
1. First established by the British as a convict settlement in 1788, it is a modern cosmopolitan city that has developed into one of the nation’s major industrial, business, and manufacturing centers.
分析
实际上,此句的完整说法应该是:(it was)first established by the British as a convict settlement in 1788, it is a modern cosmopolitan city that has developed into one of the nation’s major industrial, business, and manufacturing centers.
因为(it was)first established by the British as a convict settlement in 1788, 和(and)it is a modern cosmopolitan city that has developed into one of the nation’s major industrial, business, and manufacturing centers. 之间的主语是相同的,都是it, 并且前一个分句的主语it 之后是系动词was, 那么,前一个分句的主语it 和紧随其后的那个系动词was 都可以省略掉,也就是说,此句可以省略成一个带有过去分词短语的单句,表示两者是被动关系。
译文
最早在1788年,英国人将它建成为罪犯流放地;它现在已然成了一个国际化大都会,是全国主要的I业,商业和制作业中心之一。
2. The temperature of the exhaust gases is well above 500C, meaning that solid oxide fuel cells are very attractive for electricity and heat generation as, in addition to supplying electricity, the leftover amounts of heat created during the process could be used to produce heat for industries, provide hot water supplies or warn buildings.
分析
实际上,整个句子的主句(即:The temperature of the exhaust gases is well above 500C)并不复杂,真正让句子变得棘手的是由meaning 所引出来的一个非常长的现在分词短语,即:meaning that solid oxide fuel cells are very attractive for electricity and heat generation as, in addition to supplying electricity, the leftover amounts of heat created during the process could be used to produce heat for industries, provide hot water supplies or warn buildings.在该县在分词短语中,有2个句子,其中第二个句子是由as (因为….)来引导的弱因果关系句,即:(1)solid oxide fuel cells are very attractive for electricity and heat generation,(2)as, in addition to supplying electricity, the leftover amounts of heat created during the process could be used to produce heat for industries, provide hot water supplies or warn buildings.
并且,在这个由as引导的弱因果关系句里面,有用逗号断开的插入语in addition to supplying electricity; 理解此句时,应该先跳过该插入语,直接先将由as引导的弱因果关系句理解清楚,然后再来看插入语的内容。
译文
那些废气的温度远远高于500摄氏度, 这就意味着;对于发电和供热来说,固体氧化燃料电池是很不错的,因为除了供电外,在该过程中所产生的剩余热量可以用于I业供热,供应热水,或者给建筑物供暖。
A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim that this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value to our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves, ultimately finding its way into our genetic make-up as a remnant of our ancient animal ways.
难点解析
本句的难点在于对go so far as to, survival value, finding its way into our genetic make-up等词语的理解,以及对现在分词短语的用法的把握。
首先需要结合整个句子含义理解词组的意思。这里即使你不知道go so far as to表示“达到某种强烈程度”的意思,也要能根据even这个词中揣摩出后面的that从句要表达的是go so far的程度。后面的两个现在分词短语做伴随状语,并不难理解,关键是要找准是做哪个部分的状语,这里根据句子整体含义不难看出是做evovled所在的整个子句的状语,而不是主句的状语。最后的finding同样也是这样的伴随状语。这里finding its way into our genetic make-up有点拟人的意味在里面,其实意思就是说在我们的基因构成中找到了一席之地。
句子分析
子句类型主句
连 接 词无逻辑连接词
子句内容A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim something.
语法分析A modern hard-core sociobiologist [主语] might even go so far as to claim [谓语] something. [宾语]
子句翻译一位中坚的现代社会生物学家甚至可能会更加极端地认为某事。
子句类型宾语从句
连 接 词THAT
子句内容This aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value to our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves, ultimately finding its way into our genetic make-up as a remnant of our ancient animal ways.
语法分析This aggressive instinct [主语] evolved [谓语] as an advantageous trait, [状语] having been of survival value [状语] to our ancestors [状语] in their struggle against the hardships of life [状语] on the plains and in the caves, [定语] ultimately [状语] finding its way into our genetic make-up [状语] as a remnant of our ancient animal ways. [状语]
子句翻译侵略性的本能是作为一种有利的特质进化而来的,这对我们在平原和洞穴中与艰苦的生活作斗争的祖先来说具有存活价值,并且最终作为我们古代动物生存方式的残留物而进入我们的基因构造。
全句翻译
一位中坚的现代社会生物学家甚至可能会更加极端地认为,侵略性的本能是作为一种有利的特质进化而来的,这对我们在平原和洞穴中与艰苦的生活作斗争的祖先来说具有存活价值,并且最终作为我们古代动物生存方式的残留物而进入我们的基因构造。
单词记忆
A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim that this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value to our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves, ultimately finding its way into our genetic make-up as a remnant of our ancient animal ways.
插入语
Parenthetical sentences
在雅思考试中,因为很多句子都带有插入语结构,所以整个句子看起来冗长而复杂,往往使得很多考生读着读着就对主句的内容失去了线索,因而不知所云,产生了理解上的障碍。其实,考生只要掌握插入语结构的特征,并有针对性地做些相应的练习,即可轻松突破因插入语结构所带来的阅读障碍。
插入语的标志
(1)插入语结构前后用逗号段开,如:the book, I think, does not provide information about the population in that area.其中,插入语结构I think 便是这种特点。
(2)插入语结构前后用破折号段开,如:the paper said the volcano destroyed most---if not all---of the buildings and constructions on the island。其中,插入语if not all 就属于此类结构。
(3)插入语结构位于整个句子的最后,而且插入语之前用逗号和整个句子其他的内容隔开,如:He was the person who misguided the enemy, it turned out. 其中,插入语结构 it turned out 便是这中句式。
插入语的语法作用
因为插入语的内容与整个主句所要表达的内容无直接关系,且对于主句所要强调的内容无关键作用,所以,插入语的语法作用不太明显,也不太重要,往往只是对主句起到补充修饰,附加说明的作用,而且,其在句子中的位置也非常的灵活多变,请看下面几例:
例1 :The conclusion, I’m afraid, is not true.
例2: The conclusion is not true, I’m afraid.
例3::I’m afraid the conclusion is not true.
插入语的处理方法
因为插入语的内容与整个主句所要表达的内容无太多的直接关系,往往只是对主要内容起到补充,,说明等作用,语法作用不太重要,所以,在阅读过程中,当读到带有插入语犯结构的长句,难句的时候,为了让自己看懂主句最重要的内容,建议考生先跳过用逗号,破折号的插入语部分来理解整个主句,然后,再来理解插入语结构的具体内容。比如:
例4. The only way I know of dealing with this general human conceit is to remind ourselves that man is a brief episode in the life of a small planet on a little corner of the universe, and as we know, other parts of the cosmos may contain beings as superior to ourselves as we are to jellyfish.
上句中的插入语结构是and as we know, 如果我们先不跳过这个插入语的话,对于这个本身已经很冗长,复杂的长句来说,考生阅读起来要困难得多。其实,上句是一个带有2个并列平行宾语从句的长句,即:The only way I know of dealing with this general human conceit is to remind ourselves that (1)man is a brief episode in the life of a small planet on a little corner of the universe, (2)and as we know, other parts of the cosmos may contain beings as superior to ourselves as we are to jellyfish.这对于把握整个句子的全貌有很大的帮助。
因此, 该句的参考译文如下:
对付这种人类普遍存在的自负,我所知道的唯一的办法就是提醒我们自己:人类不过是在位于宇宙小角落里的一个小星球上的一段短暂插曲而已,而且,正如我们所知道的那样,宇宙世界中的其他的地方可能存在比人类更高级的东西,就像我们自己比水母更高级一样。
练习题:
1. The convergence of those two growing trends----dropping out and logging on---- exacerbates the serious consequences of a drop in political involvement and a rise in social isolation.
分析
句子中的两个破折号所夹的内容 dropping out and logging on 可以理解为插入语,其作用是对中心词trends 作补充说明。我们在理解整句的内容时,可先跳过这个插入语成分,等将整句的中心意思理解清楚之后再来体会该插入语即可。
译文
那两种不断发展的势头-----放弃和参与------之间的融合加剧恶化了参与政治之势下降和社会隔阂之势上升的严重后果。
2. Because the summer-time work of scientist tends to capture the public’s imagination, with revelations about the ozone hole or whale numbers, people tend to overlook the efforts of the 20 or so winterers at each base---mostly trades people---who keep the bases going long after “the boffins’(research scientists)have migrated to warmer climates.
分析
在这个因果关系的复合句中,表示原因的从句because the summer-time work of scientists tends to capture the public’s imagination, with revelations about the ozone hole or whale numbers 中所带的词组 with revelations about the ozone hole or whale numbers 可以看作是插入语。
译文
因为能够透露一些有关臭氧洞或鲸鱼数量,在夏季I作的科学家们易于抓住公众的想象,因此,人们往往忽略了那些留在各个基地的20 人左右的冬季留守者-----其中多数人是商人;在那些从事研究的科学家们转移去温暖地区后,这些冬季留守者使得基地能够长期维持下去。
词组及固定搭配
Phrases & fixed constructions
例1.What with illness and what with losses in business, his wife with his only son left him for ever.
分析
乍一看,该句的前半部分怪怪的,看起来像疑问句,但又不太像,说是词组吧,又没把握。造成这种感觉的原因是由于我们对于有些很重要的词组还不熟悉,换言之,针对性的练习做的太少了。
其实, 如果我们知道词组what with ….and what with …..中what with 的含义等于with ,意思是:“由于”“因为”,此句的意思就迎刃而解了。
注意:what with…..and what with…..常常简略地写成what with ….and …..或者with……and with….,意思不变。
译文
因为疾病和生意亏蚀,他的太太和独生子永远的弃他而去了。
例2. A successful test-taker should so train himself as to rely upon his own composing ability in the real IELTS writing test.
分析
如果我们熟悉词组“so….as to….”“这样……以便…..”的含义和用法,这个句子的准确意思便不难理解了。
译文
一位成功的应试者应该这样训练以便在真的雅思写作考试之时能够依靠自己的写作实力。
注意:so….as to….可以转换成so as to 但含义略有不同,请比较:
1. She got up early so as to be in time for the school bus. (为了能搭校车,她起得很早。)(表示“目的”)
2. She got up so early as to be in time for the school bus. (她起的很早,所以搭上了校车。) (表示“结果”)
练习题:
1. As well as scores of cinemas and theatres throughout the city and suburbs, there are numerous clubs which appeal to people of all ages, and cater for all tastes.
分析
训练有素的考生看到词组as well as 时,马上就能够明白这个句子的重心是其后的内容,因此,往往先略过as well as 所引导的意思(尤其是当它很复杂的时候),集中精力理清楚其后面的内容。
此句中涉及到3个 常用的词组,即:(1)as well as 也,还;(2)appeal to “吸引” (3)cater for “迎合,满足”。又如:
1)the fashion show performed by the US models appeal to most young Chinese ladies, as well as numerous Chinese boys. (美国模特所住的时装秀不仅吸引了无数中国男孩,也吸引了大多数的中国女孩。)
2)in a multi-culture party, food and services had better try to cater for different people from various parts of the world .(在一个多文化的聚会上,食物和服务最好尽量满足来自世界各地不同人的口味)
注意:score除了大家熟悉的“分数,得分”的意思以外,还可以表示数量20。scores of = very many, “很多,大量”。例如:
1)a score of basketball players. (20位篮球运动员)
2)three score and five. (75)
3) Scores of youngsters in Britain actually don’t like such pop music as R&B. (许多英国年轻人实际上并不喜欢象R & B 这样的流行音乐。)
同位语
Appositions
同位语短语
指在内容上对位于其前的名次、代词甚至全句进行补充、解释、说明,同时,在语法地位上和其前的名词、代词甚至全句完全相同、相等(比如:都是做主语、表语、宾语等)的短语或词组。
例1.I was born in Dalian, a prosperous seaport town of northern China.
分析
句中的介词宾语Dalian之后所接的短语 “a prosperous seaport town of northern China” 在内容上是对位于其前的名词Dalian进行补充、解释、说明,同时,在语法地位上和其前的名词Dalian完全相同、相等,即:两者都是做介词in的宾语。所以,这种情况的同位语属于同位语短语的范畴。
译文
我出生在中国东北一座繁华的海港城市-----大连。
例2. During my stay in Australia last year, I lived downtown with Fred the carpenter.
分析
在人名Fred之后的内容 “the carpenter” 是对Fred进行解释和说明的同位语短语,其在语法上都是介词with 的宾语。
译文
去年我在澳大利亚期间,是和木匠Fred住在市中心。
同位语从句
指位于一些抽象名词(如fact, opinion, idea, effect, news, claim, thought, conclusion, information等)之后的、而且是用that 来引导的句子。在这种情况下的句子叫同位语从句,它所包含的语法成分是完整的,即:主语+谓语(+宾语),但是在内容含义上是对位于其前的中心词进行具体的说明或解释。
例1. The news that China Succeeded in its entry into the WTO is indeed very exiting.
分析
句子的主干内容是:the news is indeed very exciting,其中the news 的具体内容就要靠that所引导的同位语从句来表达。
译文
中国成功地加入了世贸组织(W了O)这一消息着实让人激动。
定语从句
Attributive Clauses
一、一般而言,关系代词who在定语从句中作主语,而关系代词whom在定语从句中作宾语。但是,在现代英语中,关系代词whom(在介词后除外)经常被who所代替,也就是说,who可以担当主语也可当宾语。而且,当关系代词whom(在介词后除外)或who在定语从句中作宾语的时候,还经常省略。
例7.He is my pal (who=whom) many people respect very much.
他就是我那位赢得了很多人尊重的好友。
二、关系代词that和who或whom可以互换也就是说,关系代词that 可以指人,在定语从句中可以作主语也可以作宾语。
例8.Any citizen who (that) breaks the regulations and civil laws deserves either a fine or a severe punishment.
任何违反规定和民法的市民要么应该处以罚款,要么应该严惩不怠。
三、.在有些句子中,“but"可以作关系代词,它的意思是that(who;which)is(does)not”在这种句子中,位于but之前的主句中必须含有 “no”“ not““nothing””none”等否定词。
例9.There is nobody born but has to die in the world(There is nobody who/that has not to die in the world )
世界上没有人是生而不死的。
例10. There is not a girl but (=who would not) would prefer death to such a marriage‘
女孩子宁死都不愿意结这种婚。
例11.There was not a guest at the party but agreed with Tom. (there was not a man at the party who did not agree with Tom)
晚会上的人都同意Tom的意见。
四、定语从句和同位语从句的区别
性定语从句 指用来修饰先行词时必不可少的定语从句。也就是说,如果缺少了这个性定语从句,那么,主句的意思就不明确或不完整,先行词的意思就不明确,往往会产生歧义。
非定语从句 指用来修饰现行词时必不可少的定语从句。也就是说,如果缺少了这个非性定语从句,那么,主句的意思依然明确和完整,不会受影响。它和主句之间常常有逗号断开。
请比较例12和例13:
例12.Mr.Jackson's son, who is pursuing his doctoral studies in Australia,came back home last week for holiday stay
杰克逊先生的儿子正在澳大利亚读博士,上周回家度假来了。
(暗指:杰克逊先生只有一个儿子。.)
例13.Mr. Jackson's son who is pursuing his doctoral studies in Australia came back home last week for holiday stay.
杰克逊先生那个正在澳大利亚读博士的儿子上周回家度假来了。
(暗指:杰克逊先生可能有好几个儿子。)
练习题:
1. The commission acknowledged that neither vast amounts of money nor a large staff can ensure the safety of people who live in the vicinity of a nuclear plant, but it approved the installation because it believed that all reasonable precautions had been taken.
分析:
在主句的谓语动词acknowledge 之后所带的是一个由that 所引导的宾语从句,即:that neither vast amounts of money nor a large staff can ensure the safety of people who live in the vicinity of a nuclear plant,其中,该宾语从句中的宾语部分the safety of people又带有一个由who 所引导的定语从句who live in the vicinity of a nuclear plant 来修饰先行词people.
译文:
尽管该委员会承认数额巨大的钱和大量的I作人员都不能给生活在核电站附近的人以安全保障,但它还是批准了建造(核电站),因为它相信一切可能的防范措施都已经被采用了。
2. Evidence for this inconsistent level of performance comes from modern researches and practices which have shown that with skilled training and opportunity for development, people with intellectual disability have much greater potential for acquiring skills and for participation in community life than previously had been thought possible.
分析
其实,主句并不复杂,去掉次要内容后,主句的内容就剩下了:Evidence for this inconsistent level of performance (主语)comes from modern researches and practices(谓语)。真正让此句便得复杂的是介词宾语modern researches and practices 之后的定语从句,即:which have shown that with skilled training and opportunity for development, people with intellectual disability have much greater potential for acquiring skills and for participation in community life than previously had been thought possible.
译文
有关这种不连贯表现的证据来自于现代的研究和实践;这些研究和实践已经证明:有了技能培训和发展机遇,与人们以前的看法相比,患有智力障碍的人有更大的潜力来获得技能并参加社区生活。
复合句
Compound & complex Sentences
必备知识点
通过对雅思考试阅读部分的真题分析,我们不难发现让考生普遍感到头疼的绝大多数的难句、长句其实就是由多个单句组合而成的复合句,因此,在这里有必要先对英语中的句子结构和句型分类进行简单的介绍,以便考生能够更好地分析和理解雅思考试中的难句、长句。在英语句型当中,从句子的结构上来看,可以分为:简单句、复合句,其中复合句又可进一步细分为:并列复合句、主从复合句。例如:
(1)简单句(Simple Sentences):
Gone with the Wind is a very touching English film.
《飘》是一部非常感人的英文电影。
(2)并列复合句(Compound Sentences)
I got a deadly headache last month and then I was determined to quit smoking for good and all.
上个月我头疼得要命,那时候我下定了决心要永远戒烟。
(3)主从复合句(Complex Sentences):
Because I got a deadly headache last month, I was determined to quit smoking for good and all.
因为上个月我头疼得要命,所以就下定了决心要永远戒烟。
对于主从复合句。我们又可以进一步将其细分为三类:
状语从句(其中包括:时间状语从句、原因状语从句、地点状语从句、条件状语从句、比较或方式状语从句、目的状语从句、结果状语从句、让步状语从句)
(4) 定语从句(其中包括:性定语从句、非性定语从句)
(5) 名词性从句(其中包括:主语从句、表语从句、宾语从句、同位语从句)。
练习题:
1. For academics whose experience is primarily of study on-campus, there is some challenge in distance education, because the assumptions which underpin individualized learning may be quite different from those with which they are familiar.
分析:
这是一个因果关系的复合句。虽然从总体上来说其结构还比较清晰、易懂,但是由于在整个复合句中包含了3个定语从句,即:
For academics(1)whose experience is primarily of study on-campus,there is some challenge in distance education,because the assumptions(2)which underpin individualized:learning may be quite different from those(3)with which they are familiar.
所以该句还是有一定的难度。建议考生在分析此类复合句的时候,最好先看懂整体上的句式结构,然后再逐级深层细分。正如在分析此句的时候,先要从总体上看出其结构是因果关系的复合句,即:“…,because…”,然后再对句子中“原因”和“结果”两个部分中所涉及到的细节(比如,其中的定语从句、词组搭配等)进行逐级深层细分。养成这样的习惯很重要,也只有这样我们才能将复杂句子的整体意思把握得比较准确。
译文:
对于基本上以在校学习为主的大学生而言,远程教育具有一定的挑战,因为后者侧重自主学习,这与大学生所熟知的在校学习为主的方式有很大不同。
2. Undoubtedly, the native raspberry, for example, could, with suitable selection and breeding programs, be made to yield a high-class fruit; but Australians already enjoy good raspberries from other areas of the world and unless some dedicated amateur plant breeder takes up the task, the Australian raspberries are likely to remain unimproved.
分析:
显然,整个句子是由分号所断开的2个并列平行句组成,其中在分号之前的分句中有被2个逗号所间隔开的插入语,考生可以先跳过该插入语而将该分句的主要意思看懂,即:the native raspberry could be made to yield a high-class fruit。
在分号之后的分句是由and连接的2个并列平行句组成,即:(1) But Australians already enjoy good raspberries from other areas of the world (2) and unless some dedicated
amateur plant breeder takes up the task, the Australian raspberries are likely to remain unimproved。其中,第(2)句是一个由unless所引导的让步条件状语从句。
译文:
例如毫无疑问,澳大利亚本地产的山莓经过适当的选择和育种后能够成为一种高档水果,但澳大利亚
人已然习惯于享用来自别国的优良山莓,除非有热心的业余植物育种者承担起这份I作,否则澳洲的山莓太可能有所改良。
雅思句子间的关系与段落间的联系
雅思题目设计时固然注重文章的内容,但很多时候更加注重语言的结构或形式,注重英语语篇的衔接及连贯手段,注重语言之间的相互关系。所以,如故哦想在考试中取得高分,就一定要注意语言的这些方面,即英语的词汇连接手段,结构连接手段,以及文章中的逻辑联系语的各种表达形式。弄懂句子之间的关系以及段落与段落之间的联系。
1.照应关系
照应指用代词等语法手段表示的语义关系。英语的照应分为3类:人称照应、指示照应和比较照应。其中较难的是分句照应。分句照应指的是某些词语的所指对象不是词或者短语,而是分句、句子、句子组合,甚至是一个完整的语篇。可以用做分句照应的词语分为以下3类。
(1)here, it, this等词汇既可用于前照应,又可用于后照应。
(2)that, (the) above, the foregoing等只用于前照应。
(3)as follows, the following, below, thus 等仅用于后照应。
这一语言现象常常是命题点。
2.词汇的复现关系
词汇的复现(Reiteration)指的上一某一词以原词,同义词,近义词等其他形式重复出现在语篇中,语篇中的句子通过这种复现关系达到相互衔接,在雅思考试阅读中,这一种语言关系通常是雅思中的测试点。
3.词汇的同现关系
词汇的同现(Collocation)指的是词汇同时出现的倾向性(Co-occurrence Tendency)在一个英语语篇中,围绕着一定的话题,特定的一些词汇往往会同时出现,而其他一些词汇就不大肯能够会出现或根本不会出现。换言之,在语言实践中,某些在意思上相互联系的词语往往同时出现在同一个语篇中,这些词语属于同一个词汇套,形成词汇链(Lexical Chain).因而,当人们遇到其中一个(些)词语时,便会联想到词汇套中的另一个(些)词语,而这些词语能衔接句子,起着连句成篇作用。
4.并列关系
A and B,这种关系指的是在文章中,语言以A ,B and C的形式出现,有时这种并列可以达到5部分,各个语言部分之间内容相近,方向相同,相辅相成。有时这种关系还会以增补的形式出现,常用词汇有also, too, furthermore, moreover, besides, in addition 等,但大意和方向不变。
5.转折
文章中的“转折”常常是语意重点,所以常会涉及这个角度。转折引起的语言部分,和前面部分的内容往往相反,相互对立。经常用来明显表达“转折”关系的有以下几种
3个“虽然”: although (=though), albeit, while,
4个“但是”: but, yet, still, however
几组同义词: in fact, in effect, as a matter of fact, nevertheless, nonetheless, despite, in spite of, rather, instead, virtually, practically, still, all the same 等。
6.对比
文章中的对比关系是语意重点,也常常是命题依据。对比结构前后两个部分之间相互对立,语意相反。用来表示“对比”关系的词语有: unlike, in contrast to, on the other hand, on the contrary 等。
7.列举,过程
列举指的是First, Second, Third等逐条列出,或通过若干个步骤写一个过程,往往列出3点或3点以上的条目。用于表示这一语义关系的有first, second, firstly, secondly, one, two, for one thing, for another (thing), in the first place, first of all, to begin with, to start with, for a start, next, then, last, finally, in conclusion, last of all, to conclude 等。
8.举例,解释
举例,解释指的是逻辑联系语引导的分句,对前面涉及到的内容作解释,引申,例证,使其意义更加具体,明白,以帮助读者更好地理解。因此,这一语言现象也经常被用作命题的依据。用于表达这一语义关系的有:similarly, in other words, that is, that is to say, namely, for example等。
9.数字,年代
文章中的数字,日期,年代等常常是命题点,也是雅思考试阅读中最好的定位标志。如果雅思考试中有数字出现,一般情况下需要通过简单的四则运算来求解。
10.专有名词
包括人名,地名或其他专有名词。阅读时,遇到这些词最好标出来,以利于后面做题。
11.比较
比较指的是通过形容词,副词的比较级,最高级的形式以及某些特定的词语的表达的语义关系。在雅思考试中遇到比较,要求考生搞清比较的对象或双方,比较点的所在以及比较的方向。
12.因果关系
因果关系是语言表达中最常见的一种语义关系,历来为命题专家所青睐。依据哲学表示原因的信号词有:because, as, since, so that, therefore, thus 等
13.蕴涵关系
蕴涵关系指的是文章中句子的某个成分和题目中出现的某个成分之间在语义上有包涵或被包涵的关系。有的时候这两者之间是“下义词(Hyponym)”和其“上坐标词(Super Ordinate)”之间的关系。在雅思阅读考试中常以判断题的形式出现。这里需要注意的是:如果考题中出现的词是原文中相关词的“下义词”,或者说考题比原文所表达的语义概念窄小,那么,答案通常是Not Given 。
14.总结
这种联系语主要用在剧组或语篇的最后部分,对前面的内容做出概括和总结,所以往往是考点。能表达这一意义的有:altogether, (all) in all, in conclusion, in sum, in short, in brief, on the whole, to conclude, to sum up, to summarize, in general, in summary等
15.主题句
英文段落最常见的展开方法是演绎法(Deductive Method,所以往往每段的第一句就是主题句,就是本段的中心思想。因此,以段首句作为命题依据的考题很多。具体到雅思考试,大多数Heading 题都是这样。
16.语境信息
文章的生词不是单独存在的,它必然与前后的句子或词组有或多或少的联系。因此,我们要学会通过前后巨资推测生词的意思。这也是长考之处。
17.主句是重点
较长的复合句重点看主句
18.隐蔽处的语言部分
隐蔽处顾名思义是指句子中隐蔽之处(非主句部分),也包括同位语,插入语,定语,状语,不定式等。
19.带有特殊标志的词
括号中的词,带引号的词,大写词和黑体词等。带有特殊标志的词汇往往很引人注意。因此也常用来作为命题依据。