
Chapter 3 Stylistic Functions of Linguistic Items
I.Procedure of Stylistic Analysis----3 steps
1.Linguistic description
2.Textual analysis(语篇分析)
3.Contextual factors analysis(语境分析)
II.Linguistic Description and Stylistic Functions of Linguistic Items
1.Linguistic description
A.What does linguistic description refer to?
Linguistics description refers to the exploration and classification of linguistic features of a given text.
B.Linguistic features—in 5 categories, i.e. phonology, graphology, lexis/leksəs/(词汇), syntax/grammar, and semantics.
C.Consistency and relative frequency—linguistic features in 5 categories analyzed in stylistic way.
Note: Generally speaking, when we say that a text has certain linguistic features, we mean that these features recur (反复出现) or prevail(盛行) in the text. That is to say, frequencies of certain linguistic features should be calculated, the stylistic functions of which would be helpful for us to analyze a text.
2.A checklist of linguistic description and their stylistic functions
A.The phonological category and their stylistic functions
Phonology----refer to the system of speech sounds in a language.
| Phonological category | Definition | Example | Stylistic functions | ||
| a) elision [i'liʒən] | The omission of a sound or sounds in speech. 省音,俗称“吃音”,指通常为了发音方便起见在连续话语中省去音节或词之间的一些音。 | 1)Next week / neks wi:k/ You must do that /ju: mʌs du ðət/ (the /t/ is being elided) 2)Please send them /pl:z sen ðem/ (the /d/ being elided) | Elided forms are perfectly acceptable in ordinary conversational speech (esp. in rapid speech). Yet, when rendered in written form, they often become markers of a very informal or very casual style, with a hint of sloppiness邋遢的and laziness in speech. | ||
| b) sound symbolism | The symbolic meaning of sounds. 语音的象征意义。指一些词的音或音的组合有象征意义。 | 1)“str”象征“线性”的弹性物,如string( 绳子)、strip (纸条)、stretch (伸展)、strew [stru:] (撒播)等。 2)联觉(synaesthesia [sinis'θi:ziə, .sinis'θi:ʒə])、如由gl-而联想到gleam(微光;闪光)、glint(发微光)、glitter(闪闪发光)、glisten(闪耀)等)。 | |||
| c) sound patterning | The matching of identical or similar sounds between two or more words. Sound patterning occurs among content words(实义词)which are not far away from each other. | 1) English words may consist of one or more syllables. Let us examine the possible types of sound pattering between two monosyllabic (one-syllable) words. The structure of an English monosyllabic word can be represented as CVC (or C0-3VC0-4), with V standing for vowel, and C for consonant, the number of which varies from 0 to 4. In the following formulae the identical sound(s) in the two words is (are) underlined. CVC weal----woe/ w/ ( Alliteration,头韵 ) CVC cut----run /ʌ/(Assonance, 腹韵 ) CVC fits----starts /ts/ ( Consonance, 辅韵 ) CVC time----tide [taid] / ( Reverse Rhyme, 倒韵 ) CVC sing----song [sŋ] ( Pararhyme, 头尾韵 ) CVC wimp----limp(Rhyme, 韵 ) 2) Examples of sounds patterning in daily speech. A. words and phrases: bigwig(n.要人,大人物), hell-hole(n. 苦难的场所,藏污纳垢之地), drip-dry(v 1.随洗随干.), doom-and-gloom(n. 凄惨,前景不妙), do-or-die(adj. 不屈不挠的,孤注一掷的,生死关头的), hit-or miss(n.不论成功与否), think tank(n. 智囊团), brain drain(n. 智囊流失), fat cat(n. 1.〈美俚〉有钱人,暴发户), rat race(n. 1.<俚>(商界)日常紧张的竞争活动;无意义的竞争), mom-and-pop(adj. 1.〈美〉(店铺等)夫妻经营的) shops, a tip-to-toe(adj. 彻头彻尾,完全) check, safe and sound, tit for tat(n. 针锋相对;以牙还牙), make or break(v. 要么成功要么毁灭). B. nick names: Micky Mouse, Simple Simon (suggesting a simper person), Tricky Vicky (suggesting a deceitful 不诚实的;骗人的women) | Sound patterning is not only a source of aesthetic satisfaction, but also a phonological means of emphasis, establishing relationship between the patterned words. The device is exploited in prose, particularly in newspaper headlines, advertising jingles, etc. as well as in poetry. | ||
| d) rhyme /raim/ | The repetition of identical end sounds. 押韵,韵。又可写作rime。是一种修辞格,指在两个对应的单位中建立相似的语音序列的过程或结果。 CVC wimp----limp(Rhyme, 韵 ) | 1) single rhyme----单韵,通常在重读词或音节上押韵,包括头韵、母韵和尾韵。由于这类押韵富于雄健阳刚的特色,故又称“阳韵”(Masculine Rhyme) e.g. Fit or Fat? (由头韵/f/ 构成阳韵) China and Britain concur表示一致意见on at least one point. The 13-year transition to Chinese rule can make or break Hongkong. (母韵/ei/构成阳韵) 2)double rhyme----双韵,指“押韵重读音节+相同的弱读音节”,故又称“长短二音韵”,重轻配合,韵律悦耳,具有多姿多彩的女性美,亦称“阴韵”(Feminine Rhyme) e.g. Days, that need borrow No part of their good morrow. From a fore-spent night of sorrow. ((/ɔ+əu/构成双韵) | |||
| e) alliteration [ə.litə'reiʃən] | The repetition of an initial sound in two or more words that occur close together. 头韵格。指的是一组词、一句话或一行诗中重复出现首音相同的单词, CVC weal----woe/ w/ ( Alliteration,头韵 ) | 1)如“product,price,place and promotion”中发音相同的四个字母p的重复使用。 2) My finger twisted and twitched. 3)The cows looked at him, sleepy and surprised. 4)He smiled and milked steadily, two strong streams rushing into the pail, frothing and fragrant. | Note: 构成头韵的多为辅音字母,但应注意不发字母本音的字母不构成头韵,如physical pain, psychological power 这样的短语,由于ph-组合读f音,ps-组合中的字母p不发音,因而不能在短语中构成头韵。 | ||
| f) assonance ['æsənəns] | The repetition of internal vowel sound s in successive words. 母韵,元音韵,半谐音。指一组词,一句话,或一行诗中同一元音重复出现。 CVC cut----run /ʌ/(Assonance, 腹韵 ) | 1) fair and square/ ɛə / , near and dear/ iə / 2) The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain. /ei/ | Assonance is used by poets to effectively convey various sensory impressions. | ||
| g) consonance ['kɔnsənəns]
| Partial or total identity of consonants in successive words or syllables whose main vowels differ. 尾韵。指相同词尾辅音在一组词,一句话或一行诗中重复出现。CVC fits----starts /ts/ ( Consonance, 辅韵 ) | 1) rough and tough, a blessed ghost, /f/, /t/ 分别重复出现,构成尾韵。 2) When I left I was a friend, when I asked I was unkind. /t/,/d/ 重复出现,构成尾韵。 | |||
| h) rhythm [′riðəm] | The flow of sounds and their rise and fall, and their accents or pauses. 节奏、抑扬。指话语中重读音节和非重读音节的模式。 | 1)Foot (音步)— 一个重读音节和一个或两个轻读音节搭配起来组成一个音步。 2)常见的音步 ①. 抑扬格(iamb ['aiæmb] ;iambic [ai'æmbik] adj.) ②. 扬抑格 (troche[trəuʃ, 'trəuki] ; trochaic [.trəu'keiik, trəu'keik] adj.) ③. 抑抑扬格(anapaest ['ænəpest, 'ænə.pɛst] ; anapaestic ['ænəpestik] adj.) ④. 扬抑抑格(dactyl['dæktil] ; dactylic [ dæk'tilik] adj.) Note:①③为升格(rising meter),轻读----重读;②④为降格,重读----轻读。 3)音步数 每个诗行中所包括的音步数从一个到八个不同,即: 单音步(monometer[mɔ'nɔmitə(r), mə'nɔmi) 双音步(dimeter['dimitə] ), 三音步(trimeter['trimitə] ), 四音步(tetrameter[te'træmitə] ); 五音步(pentameter[pen'tæmitə] ); 六音步(hexameter[hek'sæmitə]), 七音步(heptameter[hep'tæmitə] ), 八音步(octameter[ɔk'tæmətə] ) 超过八音步以上的诗行也有,但很少见。最常见的音步是抑扬格,音步数是五个。例如“英雄双行体”,十四行诗等都用抑扬格五音步(iambic pentameter)写成。 4) Example When You Are Old by William Butler Yeats | |||
| l) intonation patterns | Patterns of utterance usually expressed by variations in pitch, loudness, syllable length, and speech rhythm.语调模式。 | 指说话时使用的不同音调(pitch)的旋律模式,由音调、声音的大小、音节的长度、言语节奏组成。语调可以起语法功能作用,如表面一个话语是疑问句还是陈述句,从而区分意义的不同,如“That’s ‘IT(=I’m finished).”和“ That’s 'IT?(=Is that all?)”。 | 语调可以提供话语中词语所表达的信息以外的附加信息,如肯定、怀疑等语气。语调也可以表明说话者对所说内容所抱的内容或对听者的态度。 | ||
| i) pause | Brief interruption of the articulatory process停顿 | Page 23 Pause includes silent pause----silent breaks between words, and filled pause-gaps which are filled by such expressions as um, er, ah. | |||
| j) stress | The pronunciation of the a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables.重音 | Page 22一个相对的概念,指人们说话时,发某部分音时要比其他部分音所花的力气大,即运用更多的来自胸腔的气流,因此造成说话时的重音。一个音节所以有重音是因为重音落在这个音节上,如matrix、ever、expose、disclose,或说话人欲强调或突出这个音节,例如: I said in'duce, not de'duce. | To emphasize | ||
| k) tempo ['tempəu ] | The speed of speaking. 语速 Three kinds of tempo in monosyllables: a) quick and clipped syllables(紧张的快速音节); b) loose and drawled syllables(松弛的延长发音的慢速音节); c) slow and held syllables(松弛的迟缓发音的慢速音节); Four kinds of tempo reflected in sentences: a) the quick allegro [ə'leigrəu] (快速); b) the slow lento ['lentəu] (慢速); c) the increasing accelerando [æk.selə'rændəu] (渐快速); d) the decreasing rallentando [.rælen'tændəu] (渐慢速) | Page 26 ★Function of a quick tempo indicated excitement, surprise, agreement, happiness, indignation(愤慨); ★Function of a slow tempo usually indicates confusion, emphasis, disagreement, hesitation, sadness, tiredness, low spirit or disappointment, etc. | |||
| n) pitch | The relative height of speech sounds as perceived by a listener | Page 24 | To indicate different feelings or attitudes, such as agreement, doubt, surprise, delight, scorn, abhorrence(憎恨,痛恶), or hatred. | ||
| m) onomatopoeia [.ɔnəmætə'pi:ə, .ɔnə.mætə'pi:ə] | Words containing sound similar to the noises they describe. 拟声词 | 1) bang(呯), hiss(嘶嘶,咝咝), sizzle(烧得哧哧响), moo(哞)哞哞[牛叫声]、coo[鸽子的叫声]等; 2) He cackled(发出咯咯声). (a loud silly laugh) He chuckled(轻声地笑, 低声轻笑). (inwardly, quietly to oneself) They giggled(咯咯的笑, 傻笑). (silly, uncontrolled-girls) He hee-heed. (by a sly 狡猾的old man.) He haw-hawed(哈哈). (loud and rude) He tittered(窃笑, 傻笑,短促而神经质的笑). ( in a nervous, affected, or partly suppressed manner) | Onomatopoeic words are used to produce sound images. 表现语音的象征作用。传意、状物、助情、调声。----表达思想、描绘形态、渲染气氛、调谐声音节奏。 | ||
| Graphological category | Definition | Example | Stylistic functions | |
| a) punctuation—the use of punctuation marks | The dash | 1) He is — how shall I put it? — an utter fool. 2) Three campus leaders — Shirley Mann, president of the All Students Association; Bert Flynn, editor of the student paper; and Susan Sarachek, president of the Student Senate----came out strongly for the proposal. | 1) to indicate an abrupt break in a sentence or an unfinished statement. 2)to set off a summary or a long appositive. 3)to set off strongly parenthetical expressions. | |
| The colon | 2) All kinds of people were there: doctors, clergyman, miners, shop assistant, and so on. | 1) before a long, formal quotation. 2) to introduce lists of items. | ||
| The exclamation mark | Help! Oh! You hit me! | It is often used after a particularly forceful interjection or imperative sentence. | ||
| b) capitalization—the use of capital letters | 1) used in the first word of a sentence; e.g. He is interesting. 2) used in the first word in a line of verse; e.g. When you are old and gray and full of sleep 3) used in the first word in a quotation; e.g. He said, “ I’ll be back tomorrow.” 4) used in the names of gods or goddesses; Zeus, Jupiter, Venus, 5) used in official titles before the names of officials; e.g. President Obama, Chairman Hu 6) used in proper nouns; e.g. the Suez Canal, the Great Wall, 7) used in the names of language; e.g. English, Chinese, Japanese 8) used in nationalities(国籍) e.g. Chinese, German, Swiss 9) used in the names of trade marks; e.g. Coca Cola, Disney, Sumsung, Philips, 10) used in geographical terms; e.g. the Alps, the West Indies (西印度群岛) | Capitalization used elsewhere often indicates emphasis, stress, or strong feelings. | ||
| c) paragraphing(分段) | The way in which a text is divided into paragraphs | Long paragraph usually elucidate(阐释,说明) complicated or formal subjects, while short paragraphs are often used for transition, for summary or for emphasizing a point of view. | Paragraphing is a device to reveal the relational structure in a text, the organization of the content. | |
| d) italics | Words leaning to the right | 1) used for titles of books, magazines, newspapers, plays, movies, long musical compositions, and names of trains, planes, and ships; e.g. Gone with the Wind 2) used to emphasize a word or longer element in a sentence, to refer to a word as a word; e.g. Moderation and Pragmatism are the key terms to describe Lincoln’s reconstruction polices. The word receive is often misspelled. 3) to indicate a foreign word or phrase which has not been Anglicized; e.g. Chickens become poultry (poulet), and a calf becomes veal (veau). | Italics are indicated in a typed or handwritten manuscript by underlining. | |
| e)format of printing印刷版式 | The general arrangement of the printing forms | |||
| f) graphic signs图表标志 | Size or shape of letters, tables, pictures, diagrams, drawings, type style, etc. | |||
| g) spelling拼写 | Normal or deliberate misspelling | |||
| Lexical category | Definition | Example | Stylistic functions | |
| a) general or specific 一般词汇/ 具体词汇 (superordinate term上义词 or hyponym(subordinate term)下义词)(hyponymy 下义关系) | A general word—may include a group of other words. A specific word— is a member of that group. | general (superordinate term)----human being specific (hyponym)----man, woman, baby, child, the old , the young | General words are often too vague to convey any precise meaning, thus, the use of specific words is more informative, and can evoke vivid images in reader’s/hearer’s mind. | |
| b) Anglo-Saxon or Lantinate 盎格鲁-萨克森词汇与拉丁词汇 | 1) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin constitute English–speaking people’s basic vocabulary, which they have known since childhood, and such words are close to their hearts and emotionally charged. e.g. Table 1 2) English of words of Latin or French are words of science, religion and official communication. They often to create the effect of coolness, dignity, formality and intellectual distance. e.g. Table 1 | |||
| c) conceptual or associative 概念意义/ 关联意义 | Conceptual meaning is the basic meaning presented by meaningful linguistic units. Words may refer to objects in the real world (e.g. dog, book, river, etc.) or abstract concepts (e.g. life, friendship, hatred, etc.). The relationship between a word and an object in the real world or a concept in our mind to which the word refers is the conceptual meaning of the word. Associative meaning refers to the connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning of the words. | |||
| d) denotative or connotative 外延意义/ 内涵意义 | A word’s denotative meaning is what it literally means, as defined by the dictionary. A word’s connotative meaning is the communicative value an expression has in addition to the purely conceptual meaning. e.g. woman denotative meaning—an adult female human being connotative meaning—gregarious(爱交际的,合群的), capable of speech, experienced in cookery(烹饪术), frail(脆弱的), prone(有做…倾向的)to tears, emotional, inconstant(感情)易变的,无常的), etc. | |||
| e) monosyllabic or polysyllabic(simple or hard(难度单词(三个或三个以上音节的单词))) | Monosyllabic words— bed, good, go, went, Polysyllabic words—difficult, international, antidisestablishmentarianism (反政教分离主义) | |||
| f) formal or informal | Formal words refer to loans originate from Greek, Latin, and French which are always used in magazines, formal speech, documents and formal talks. Formal words include technical terms (专业术语). e.g. blood—sanguinary (血的); body—corporal (身体的);nose — nasal (鼻子), tooth—dental (牙齿的) Informal words refer to common words of Anglo-Saxon words. | Formal | Informal | |
| bear | carry | |||
| cast | throw | |||
| cease | stop | |||
| deem | think | |||
| desist | stop | |||
| dwell | live | |||
| deavour | try | |||
| purchase | buy | |||
| g) standard or nonstandard标准词/ 次标准词(口语词)(slang, jargon) | Standard words =colloquialism 口语词,在口语中通用的词,不适宜正式场合。 e.g. make up, make-up (化妆品), to baby-sit, awfully, terrific, wonderful, horrible, etc. Nonstandard words=slang(俚语)+vulgarism (俗语词)+professionalism(行业用语)+ jargon(隐语,黑话) e.g. slang(俚语):fish (易受骗上当的人;笨蛋;生手;新囚犯;美元;鱼雷);spaghetti bang bang (描写黑手党的暴力电影) vulgarism (俗语词):four-letter words, professionalism(行业用语):hypo =hypodermic syringe (护士用语,皮下注射);buster=bomb (士兵用语,) jargon(隐语,黑话):can-opener ();dip(扒手);spear(掏腰包) | |||
| h) dynamic or static (verbs); 静态动词/动态动词 | Static verbs refer to : ①a relationship or a state of being, e.g. be, belong to, own, possess, etc.; ②state of perception, e.g. hear, see, smell, think, etc. and state of emotion and attitude, e.g. love, hate, want, etc. Dynamic verbs refer to : ①activities having duration, e.g. walk, read, talk, etc.; ②process or transitions, e.g. grow, arrive, become. Etc.; ③momentary acts, e.g. kick, jump, etc.’ | |||
| i) vulgar or euphemistic 俗语词/ 委婉语 | vulgarism (俗语词):four-letter words, euphemism: 委婉语 undertaker=funeral director; a gardener=landscape architect; a plumber=sanitary engineer; hair dresser=beautician; a file clerk=research consultant; garbage collector= sanitation engineer | |||
| j) archaic or neologism(old fashioned or new words) 古词语/ 新词语 | Archaic—指过去曾经用过,而在现代英语中基于某种原因不再广泛应用的词,它们明显不属于现代英语通用词汇的一部分。 e.g. Nay(不), nothing----only methinks(古无人称动词,我以为,我想,据我看来) it might satisfy you that I might satisfy you that I am trustworthy(可靠的)。这句话中插入了“nay”和“methinks”两词,表现了一定的历史色彩。 Neologism—由于人类的政治、经济、社会、文化、科学技术等方面发生变化而新造的词或者获得新义的旧词。只要一个词还给人以新鲜的感觉,这个词就算上是个新词。各个时代都有新创词语进入语言系统。 e.g. 20世纪60年代watergate---水门事件;丑闻 hippie(嬉皮士),yuppie(雅皮士)woopie(富皮士)等。 在电子计算机时代出现的新词语更是层出不穷,诸如Internet(因特网),palmtop(掌上电脑),Web page(网页),Website(网站),e-mail(电子邮件),firewall(防火墙),virus(病毒),hacker(黑客),caller CD(来电显示),digital camera(数码相机),cell phone(手机)等。 | |||
| k) abstract or concrete(nouns) | Abstract noun e.g. glory, honesty, failure, education, etc.; Concrete noun e.g. Mum, baby, fruit, etc. | |||
| From English | From French | From Latin | Meaning in Chinese |
| weak | feeble | fragile | 软弱 |
| size | caliber(弹的)直径 | magnitude( 大小, 重要, 光度, (地震)级数,) | 大小 |
| empty | devoid(全无的, 缺乏的) | vacuous(空的, 发呆的, 心灵空虚的) | 空的 |
| end | Finish | complete | 结束 |
| rise | Mount | ascend | 上升 |
| ask | question | interrogate | 问 |
| belly | stomach | abdomen | 胃,腹部 |
| fire | flame(火焰) | conflagration(大火灾, 大火, 突发) | 火 |
| time | age | epoch(时期, 时代, 新纪元, 划时代的大事) | 时代 |
| die | pass | decease | 死 |
| count | calculate | compute | 算 |
Syntax is used here to refer to rules for ordering and connecting words into sentences.
E. Semantic category and their stylistic functions
Semantics is used here to refer to the meaning of words, expressions, etc. and by what means the meaning is conveyed from the addresser to the addressee. Here, our concern is mainly the rhetorical devices, especially figures of speeches, which can be roughly divided into eight types:
| Semantic category | Definition | Example | Stylistic functions | ||
| a) Figures of comparison | Simile(明喻) ['simili, 'simə.li] | It is a comparison between two distinctly different things and the comparison is indicated by the word as or like. | e.g. O my love’s like a red, red rose. The old man’s hair is as white as snow. | ||
| Metaphor(暗喻['metəfə]
| It is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to another with a similar quality. It is also a comparison, but the comparison is implied, not expressed with the word as or like. | 1) Metaphors are used after verb to be. e.g. My love is a red, red rose. 2) Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs can all be used metaphorically. e.g. The picture of those poor people’s lives was carved so sharply in his heart that he could never forget it. There was a medieval magnificence about the big dining-hall. The street faded into a country road with straggling house by it. The charcoal fire glowed and dimmed rhythmically to the strokes of the bellows. | |||
| Analogy(类比) [ə'nælədʒi]
| Analogy draws a parallel between two unlike things that have several common qualities or point of resemblance. | 1. Judicious praise is to children what the sun is to flowers. 明智的赞扬对于孩子的作用,就像阳光对于花朵的作用一样。 2. An individual human existence should be like a river----small at first, narrowly contained within its banks, and rushing passionately past boulders and over waterfalls. Gradually the river grows wider, the banks recede, the waters flow more quietly, and in the end, without any visible break, they become merged in the sea, and painlessly lose their individual being. 人生应该像一条河----开始是涓涓细流,仅局限于两岸之间,未免狭窄;然后奔放地冲过巨石,翻越瀑布,慢慢地河面变得开阔,两岸后移,水面更趋平静,于是最后毫不犹豫地与大海融为一体,毫无苦楚地丧失自己的存在。 | The function of analogy differs from that of simile or metaphor. While the latter figures serve to heighten effect with vivid imagery, analogy is chiefly used for the purpose of persuasion or for the explanation or exposition of an idea.(阐明事理时,把抽象概念具体化,把深奥的哲理浅显化) | ||
| Personification(拟人) [pə:sɔnifi'keiʃən] | It is to treat a thing or an idea as if it were human or had human qualities. | e.g. The match will soon be over and defeat is staring us in the face. Dusk came stealthily. | |||
| Synaesthesia(联觉,通感。也可写成synesthesia。 ) | 联觉:指刺激和感官(嗅觉、视觉、听觉、味觉、和触觉)的牵连关系;一个感官接受刺激的同时触发另一个感官接受刺激后产生的现象,如看到颜色或听到声音等。 | 1)就语言而言,联觉指词语的比喻用法,因此“声音”可以是“柔和的”(触觉),或 “黑暗的”(视觉)等。 2) 联觉也指由于某个音或几个音组合而联想到某种意义,即是指语音的象征意义(symbolism),如从英语中的gl音的组合而联想到light(光)的意义:glance(看一下;闪耀)、glare(闪耀)、glary(光滑的)、gleam(闪光)、glimmer(微光)、glitter(闪光)等。联想到的这组词叫联觉音组系列词(phonaesthetic series)或同性质一组词(congeneric group)。 通感:又称联觉或感觉移借,原来是心理学上的一个术语,用在文学或艺术上指文学艺术创作和鉴赏过程中的一种心理现象。 | |||
| b) Figures of replacement (etc.) | Metonymy [mi'tɔnimi, mə'tɔnəmi] 换喻;转喻;借代 | It is substituting the name of one thing for that of another with which it is closely associated. Thus the crown can stand for a king, and the White House for the American government, the bottle for wine or alcohol, and the bar for the legal profession. | e.g. Sword and cross in hand, the European conquerors fell upon the Americas. When the war was over, he laid down the sword and took up the pen. His purse would not allow him that luxury. | 借与某事物密切相关的东西来表示该事物。换喻 (借代)又可译作“转喻”或“借代”,是一种比喻性的辞格。它借助于某事物密切相关的东西来表示该事物。换喻与明喻、暗喻等比喻形式的不同点是:明喻、暗喻是利用不同类对象的相似点构成比较,而换喻则是利用两个对象之间的某种联系来唤起别人的联想,从而避免生硬直说,如人在幼年离不开摇篮,因而可以借用cradle表示“婴儿时期” 。例如,He must have been spoilt from the cradle。 另外,也可用事物的明显标志代替事物本身,以工具代替动作或行为者,以作者代替作品以及用具体事物代替抽象概念等。 | |
| Synecdoche [si'nekdəki]提喻
| A part is substituted for the whole or the whole is substituted for a part. 一种比喻性辞格,它不直接说出所指对象的名称,而是以该对象的局部来表示整体。如“头”和“手”等是人体的部分,用它们表示整个人,就是“提喻”。 | e.g. The farms were short of hands during the harvest season. He had to earn his daily bread by doing odd things. 部分代整体 e.g. He paid the workers $5 per head. 整体代部分 e.g. Australia(team) beat Canada(team) at cricket. | 以某物的局部表示整体,或反过来以整体表示局部。 | ||
| Antonomasia(换称代类名) | 指用形容词来代替专有名词(Proper noun),如用“the Almighty”来代表上帝;用头衔来代替专有名词,如用“His Honour”来指称法官,用“the Iron Duke”来指the Duke公爵 of Wellington;用专有名词来表达普通概念,如用“a Solomon”来称一位聪明人;用专有名词来做类名,如用商标名“Hoover”来称呼vacuum cleaner。 | Two forms: 1. An epithet(绰号,移就), or the name of an office or designation (称号) is substituted for a proper name. e.g. the Pontiff(罗马教皇,主教,大祭司) for the Pope 2. A proper name is made to stand for an idea or characteristic associated with the name. e.g. Solomon for a wise man; Daniel for a wise and fair judge (from Biblical figures) Hitler for a tyrant; Uncle Tom (from the character in “Uncle Tom’s Cabin”) for a black who compromises and conforms with the Whites | This type of substitution differs from Metonymy in that the proper name must denote some idea or characteristic of a well-known person, either in history or fiction. When we mention Uncle Sam, we think only that it stands for the United States. Moreover, a proper name in Antonomasia can be used as a common noun. We can say “Tom is a Hercules” meaning that he is very strong, but we cannot say “Tom is an Uncle Sam”. | ||
| Allusion(典故,引喻) [ə'lu:ʒən] | Allusions are implied or indirect references to characters or events from culture: literature, legends, history, religion, sports, etc.. 指把典故、谚语、成语、俗语和格言等精妙地编织到某一语境(context)中的一个修辞手段,其特点是不注明出处,不引全句,只引用一个关键词或词组,并将其融合在作者自己的话中。因此,从字面上看,引喻常有转意或引申意义。 e.g.
| 1. Allusions from literature. e.g. A Romeo — a handsome young man, passionate, dashing, who has a way with woman (from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet). 2. Allusions from mythology A Pandora’s box—a prolific source of troubles, derived from the box sent by the gods to Pandora, which she was forbidden to open and which loosed a swarm of evils upon mankind when she opened it out of curiosity. That expectation could prove the Achilles heel (阿喀琉斯的脚踵)of the project. 3. 汉语:你真是诸葛亮。 她是个王熙凤式的人物。 | Such indirect references —allusions—not only make language richer but also make communication vivid and easier. | ||
| Euphemism(委婉语) | It is the substitution of a mild or vague expression for a harsh or unpleasant one. | 1)The social function of euphemism can be divided into three aspects that achieve an implied and tactful purpose: 2)Function for taboo, Function for cover, Function for politeness. | The ordinary people use euphemisms to soften harsh reality, but politicians mean aim at deceiving the public. | ||
| Understatement(低调陈述,含蓄陈述) | In understatement the words play down the magnitude or value of the subject. | Uses for understatement 1. 用词汇手段来体现 2. 用语法手段来体现 3. 用反说代替正说 4. 用弱说代替强说 5. 用弦外之音 3.Litotes (曲言法) —以反说代替正说,即通常以否定形式表示肯定的内容。 e.g. There is no laughing matter. =That’s a serious matter. 4. Meiosis (弱陈法)—以弱说代替强说,即用形容词或副词比较级或用程度副词(如:almost, hardly, kind of, scarcely, something of, sort of, etc.)减弱语气。 e.g. Do you think all the programs are good? Well, some are interesting, some could be better, and some are almost sort of rubbish. | Understatement achieves its effect of emphasizing a fact by deliberately understating it, impressing the listener or the reader more by what is merely implied or left unsaid by bare statement. It is used either for ironic emphasis, for modesty or for politeness and tactfulness. | ||
| Overstatement(夸张) | It is also called hyperbole. In overstatement the diction exaggerates the subject. | e.g. She is dying to know what job has been assigned her. On hearing that he had been admitted to that famous university, he whispered to himself, “I’m the luckiest man in the world.” They almost died laughing. | The main function of using overstatement or hyperbole is to achieve intensity emotion, to elevate a person or thing to heroic(英雄的) or mythical(想象的,虚构的) status, or to make fun or to ridicule(嘲笑). | ||
| Transferred Epithet (移就) ['epiθet] | An epithet is an adjective or descriptive phrase that serves to characterize somebody or something. A transferred epithet is one that is shifted from the noun it logically modifies to a word associated with that noun. When one says that he has had a busy day, one is using such a figure of speech. For it is the person, not the day, that is busy. | Uses 1. 移人于物 (用来修饰人的修饰词移于修饰事物) She was so worried about her son that she spent several sleepless nights. 2. 移物于人 William Shakespeare is a very hard English writer. 3. 移甲物于乙物(即将原描写甲物的修饰词移到乙物来修饰。) Darrow walked slowly round the baking court. | Aptness(适合性) and brilliant effectiveness are the key considerations in choosing epithets. It also aims at being fresh, seeking striking images, etc. 把通常用来形容人类情感的词语转移到客观事物上,达到借物抒情的目的。产生效果为形式简洁、新颖而含义形象、深邃的效果。 | ||
| c) Figures of repetition (alliteration, assonance, consonance, rhyme, etc.); | Hendiadys [hen'daiədis] .. | Hendiadys[hen′daiədis]----重言法。亦作twin formula (成对公式)。是一种扩展修辞手段。 | 两种方式: (1)指将两个意义相关的措辞并列相联,主要起强调作用,如“cozily warm”变作“cozy warm”; (2)指将一个复合词拆成两个形式并列而语义上不相等的表述,如“shocking language”拆成为“language and shock”。 | ||
| Polysyndeton [pɔli'sinditɔn, .pɔli:'sindi.tɔn] | 多连接结构,多分句连接。又作syndesis(分句连接)。指由多个连接词连接的并列结构。它既能强调列举的语项的长度,又能强调每个语项与其他语项的区别性。 | e.g. Lisa and Joan and Tom and Steven… The horizon narrowed and widened, and dipped and rose, and at all times its edge was jagged(把...撕成锯齿状)with waves.(----Stephen Crane) | |||
| Reiteration [ri:.itə'reiʃən] | 重述,复用。一种重要的英语词汇衔接手段。重述可以通过运用原词项,或者其同义词或近义词、上义词、意义相容的词和概括词来实现。 | e.g. 1. The work people do is called economic activity. All economic activities combined marked up the economic system of a town, a city, a country, or the world.(重复原词项) 2. I took leave, and turned to the ascent阶梯 of the peak. The ascension上升,爬高 /climb was perfectly easy.(同义词synonym,近义词near-synonym) 3. I don’t know where to stay in Geneva. I have never been to that place.(用表示同类事物的概括词替代表示特殊意义的下属词。) 4. What shall I do with all this crockery陶器? Leave the stuff there.(同3) | |||
| d) Figures of contrast/juxtaposition | Antithesis(对偶句) [æn'tiθisis, æn'tiθəsis] | Antithesis, especially used in speeches and literary works, is the deliberate arrangement of contrasting words or ideas in balanced/parallel structural forms to achieve force and emphasis. In brief, it is the juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting ideas. | e.g. 1) What is written without effort is in general read without pleasure. (—Samuel Johnson) 2) We prefer to die a hero, rather live a slave. 3)I would rather have my people laugh at my economy than weep for my extravagance. | 对偶的形式整齐,匀称,音律节奏铿锵,而内容或者重复强调,或者反衬对照,因此具有鲜明的修辞功能。 | |
| Parallelism(排比句) ['pærəlelizəm, 'pærəlel.izəm] | In parallel construction it is necessary to balance word for word, phrase with phrase, clause with clause, sentence with sentence. Parallelism is regularly employed in the listing of facts, ideas, events etc., and the parallel elements may range from a minimum of two to any number required. | Uses 1. Words and phrases parallel 2. Clauses parallel 3. Paragraphs parallel e.g. Here is where the hot wind blows and (where) the old ways do not seem relevant; where the divorce rate is double the national average and where one person in every thirty-eight lives in a trailer. (---- Joan Didion) 此句中用作表语的四个where分句就组成平行结构。又如: We must somehow take a wider view, look at the whole landscape, really see it, and describe what’s going on out there. (---- Annie Dillard)。此句中must后跟四个动词短语组成平行结构,表现出句子的经济、紧凑、又富于韵律。 | Parallelism由于其形式精致、工整,在语调上富于韵律感,又加上在表达上既经济,又突出含义,因此能给读者或受话人深刻的印象。 | ||
| climax | Climax is derive from the Greek word for ladder, it implies the progression of thought at a uniform or almost uniform rate of significance or intensity, like the steps of a ladder ascending evenly. 层递式。指结构上较工整的并列句式,其语义上各并列部分是依照由轻到重、由浅到深的次序排列的,从而层层推进。 | e.g. 1. I came, I saw, I conquered. (Veni, Vidi, Vici.) 2. For want of a nail, the shoe was lost; for want of a shoe, the horse was lost; for want of a horse, the rider was lost. | Climax is used to increase importance, weight, or emphasis especially in persuasive speech or writing, it is extremely effective in stirring up feelings and emotions, or in driving home a point(加强语势,烘托气氛). | ||
| anticlimax | Anticlimax is the opposite of climax and it involves stating one’s thoughts in a descending order of significance or intensity, from strong to weak, from weighty to light. It is based on the principle that the more power the thought decreases in importance, the higher the force of the ridicule or satire would be. | e.g. 1) He elbowed his way into the crowd and, to his great surprise; he found everyone was gazing at the ground—at nothing. 2) She lost her children, her husband and her purse. 3) The holy passion of friendship is of so sweet and steady and loyal and enduring a nature that it will last through a whole lifetime, if not asked to lend money. (Mark Twain) | 渐(突)降法通过添加词语方法来削弱语义的渐降法起到诙谐、幽默的效果。 | ||
| e) Figures of double meaning etc.) | Pun(双关) | When a word or phrase is used in two different senses, it can be a pun. So to pun is to play on words, or rather to play with the form and meaning of words for a witty or humorous effect. 文字游戏 | Uses 1. Homophonic ([.hɔmə‘fɔnik] 同音的) pun 同音相关 2. Paronomasia ([.pærənəu‘meiʒə] ) 近音双关 3. Antanaclasis 同词异义双关 4.Sylleptic ([si‘leptik] )pun 一词多义双关 5. Asteismus 歧解双关 | Pun can stimulate the readers’ imagination, and it is usually used for rhetorical effect such as for emphasis, humor, sarcasm, fun, irony and so on. 双关语以幽默、俏皮为特色,往往听时令人发笑,过后回味无穷,是语言技巧的高度体现。 | |
| Irony反语 | It is the use of words which are clearly opposite to what is meant, in order to achieve a special effect. | e.g. 1) Some Americans have now developed a libido for the ugly. 2) Some kind-hearted bosses go to the market and pick up some vegetable leaves, coming back and digging them into salt water, and then a god-given cake is ready for them. | Irony is employed in sentence in order to achieve effects for emphasis, humor, fun, contempt(蔑视), as well as accusation(指责). | ||
| Irony的几种变异形式 | |||||
| Paradox(反论,逆论) | 乍听似乎荒唐而实际上却有道理的某种说法,也被称为“翻筋斗的真理”。 | More haste, less speed. In fact, it appears that the teachers of English teach English so poorly largely because they teach grammar so well. | |||
| Oxymoron(矛盾修饰法)指用两种不相调合的特性来形容某事物,以达到警句效果的一种修辞手法。 | In oxymoron apparently contradictory terms are combined to produce a special effect. | The coach had to be cruel to be kind to his trainees. When the news of the failure came, all his friends said it was a victorious defeat. The president was conspicuously absent on that occasion. She read the long-awaited letter with a tearful smile. 矛盾修辞法的主要结构为: 形容词+名词——living death, creative destruction 形容词+形容词——bitter-sweet days, poor rich guys 副词+形容词——falsely true, dully bright 名词+名词——love-hate relationship, the sound of silence 动词+副词——shine darkly, groan loudly | Oxymoron(矛盾修饰法) | ||
| Satire | 可用于泛指irony, sarcasm 等,其特点是用来讽刺社会现象或一些人,不像sarcasm 那样指个人。 | 1)Some rise by sin, and some fall by virtue. 2) The proud hate pride—in others. 3) A liar begins with making falsehood appear like truth, and ends with making truth itself appear like falsehood. | |||
| sarcasm (讥讽,讽刺,挖苦) | Sarcasm is a form of sneering criticism in which disapproval is often expressed as ironic praise. It is used to express contempt, scorn, as well as cynicism. | 1) The devil, depend upon it, can sometimes do a very gentlemanly thing. 2) It is a human nature to hate the man whom you have hurt. 3) O, what a world of vile ill-favored faults looks handsome in three hundred pounds a year. | 单刀直入,不留情面,使人在感情上受到刺激甚至伤害 | ||
| f) Figures of reverse meanings | Palindrome ['pælindrəu] | 回文。一种辞格式,指往后读和往前读是一样的一个词、一组词或数字, | 如madam, Otto, Anna, 37373等。 中文:若非孤岛孤非弱 | ||
| Spoonerism ['spu:nərizəm, 'spu:nəri:.zəm] | 首音互换,斯本内现象。以牛津新学院院长斯本内(W. A. Spooner, 1844----1930)名字命名的言语误用现象(约1885年出现)。 | 有一次他故意把“Is the Dean busy?”(教务长忙吗?)说成“Is the bean dizzy?”(豆子头晕吗?)。后来用斯本内现象指偶然地或故意地把两个首音或音节互换位置。 | |||
| g) Figures of resemblance h) Figures of omission | Parody(仿拟) | 通常对人们熟知的某个谚语、格言、名句乃至文章体裁适当地“改头换面”而构成一种颇为新奇的表达形式。 | 1.Failure is the mother of success. Parody: Necessity is the mother of invention. Failure teaches success. 2.Lewis Carrol 的儿童文学名著Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland 中的一首儿歌即是仿拟英国诗人Jane Taylor的The Little Star。 Parody: Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are! Up above the world so high Like a diamond in the sky! (—Jane Taylor) Twinkle, twinkle, little bat, How I wonder what you’re at! Up above the world you fly Like a tea tray (茶盘) in the sky. (—Lewis Carrol) | ||
| Onomatopoeia(拟声法) | 模拟声音的一种生动逼真的修辞手段。 | 1. The stream is murmuring through the woods. (小溪潺潺流过树林。) The door crashed open.(门砰地一声开了。) Heavy rain drops began pitter-pattering on the tent.(沉重的雨点啪嗒啪嗒地落到帐篷上。) 2. Tires booped and whoosed, the fenders queeled and graked, the steering wheel rose up like a spectre and disappeared in the direction of Franklin Avenue with a melancholy whistling sound, bolts and gadgets flew like sparks from a Catherine wheel. (两对新创的拟声词连用,描绘汽车被撞的情景,视之如同发生在眼前,既听得明明白白,又听得清清楚楚。) | |||
| Asyndeton [æ′sinditən];接续词省略;连接词省略 | Asyndeton在传统语法和修辞中指并列子句或短语中没有明确的连词或连接词。 | At Mr. Wackford Squeers’s Academy, Dotheboys Hall… Youth are boarded, clothed, booked, furnished with pocket-money, provided with all necessaries, instructed in all languages living and dead. (瓦克福德·斯奎尔斯先生主办的学校,杜塞博伊斯学堂……凡入学男生,一律供给食宿、衣着、书本、零用钱及所有必需品,教授各种使用或不再使用的语言。) | |||
| Parataxis [.pærə‘tæksis] 意合(不用连词的排列) | 在传统语法和修辞学中,不用连词的排列指运用并列手段连接没有从属或并列关系的小句,因而小句之间的联系需要推断而知。 | 1)简单的逻辑或时间连接不用连词; e.g. Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall, [and then] Humpty Dumty had a great fall. 2) 因果关系; e.g. Boys and girls come out to play. [because] The moon doth shine as bright as day. (因为月光如昼多好啊) 3)表示方式 Save trees ---- [how] Eat a beaver. (救救大树吧----[怎么救?]吃掉山狸。) | 不用连接词的排列在流行的或简单的文学形式中很常见,如儿歌、民谣或编年史中。 | ||
| Syllepsis[si′lepsis] 一语双叙,轭语法 | Syllepsis源于希腊语,意为“合为一体(taking together)”,它使一个单词在同一语句中产生两个不同的意思,其方法是通过省略把两个并列结构合为一体 | 1. Syllepsis has two connotations. In the first case, it is a figure by which a word, or a particular form or inflection of a word, refers to two or more words in the same sentence, while properly applying to or agreeing with only one of them in grammar or syntax. e.g. 1) Either the children or I are going. (Here are is correct in relation to children, but not to I.) 2) He addressed you and me, and desired us to follow him. (Here us is used sylleptically to refer to you and me.) 2. In the second case, Syllepsis is a figure by which a word may refer to two or more words in the same sentence, applying to one literally to the other(s) figuratively. e.g. 1) She went home with a flood of tears and a sedan chair. 她乘轿子泪水涟涟地回了家。 4) Search your lockers and your consciences.检查你的柜子,再好好想想。 | 产生滑稽或讽刺的效果。 | ||
| Zeugma [‘zju:gmə] 轭式搭配;轭式修饰法 | Zeugma is a figure of speech by which a single word is made to modify or to govern two or more words in the same sentence, either properly applying in sense to only one of them, or applying to them in different senses. 轭式搭配(zeugma)源于希腊语,原意为“把驮畜连在一起”。作为英语修辞手段意思为“两个主语或两个宾语同时与一个动词搭配,或是一个形容词同时修饰两个名词,其中只有一个是合适的,而另一个是搭上去的,以及其他用法。” 它与一语双叙十分相似。 | Uses 1. One Verb+ two (or more) objects e.g. This hair style fits her and the times 2. Prep. +two (or more) objects e.g. They gathered in the hall for friendship and a hot lunch. 3. Two objects +one verb e.g. Ten minutes later, the coffee and the commander arrived simultaneously. 4. One adjective + two nouns e.g. She returned with a young handsome man a handsome sum of money. 5. One subject +several verbs When at Nightmare Abbey, he would condole with Mr. Glowry, drink Madeira with Scythrop, crack jokes with Mr. Hilary, hand Mrs. Hilary to the piano, take charge of her gloves. 6. One noun + several relative pronoun clauses (多个关系代词引导的从句) e.g. O books who alone are liberal and free, who give to all who ask of you and enfranchise all who serve you faithfully! (Richard de Bury) | |||
IV.Contextual Factors Analysis
