Chapter 2
Financial Statements, Taxes, and Cash Flow
Balance Sheet
∙Assets = Liabilities + Shareholder’s Equity
oA balance sheet does exactly what it means – everything must be equal – it balances
oIf a firm raises more money by issuing stock then the firm’s assets will also increase because that money has to go somewhere. Or a firm could raise money by issuing stock and use that money to pay off its debts or liabilities.
∙Organization of what the firm OWNS (assets), what it OWES (liabilities), and the DIFFERENCE (shareholder’s equity) between the two
1st of 3 items on the balance sheet is ASSETS
∙Assets are put into two categories:
oCurrent – will only be an asset for a year or less. After a year, that asset will be converted to cash.
▪Inventory is a current asset – as soon as a firm makes a product it goes to the store and then is bought. After a product is purchased that firm receives cash.
oFixed – fixed assets can be thought of an asset that has a long-life. An example would be machinery
▪Tangible – it means you can touch it. Trucks, computers
▪Intangibles – trademark or a patent
2nd of 3 items on the balance sheet is LIABILITIES
∙Liabilities are put into two categories:
oCurrent – same concept as a CURRENT ASSET: that liability must be paid within one year)
▪Accounts Payable is a current liability – AP is the method company’s use to pay their suppliers. The supplier will mail the bill to the company. The company then has a certain amount of time to pay that bill in full.
oLong-term Liability – debt that does not come due within a year
3rd of 3 items on the balance sheet is SHAREHOLDER’S EQUITY
∙Mentioned before that shareholder’s equity is the difference between assets and liabilities
∙Reflects the fact that should a firm sell all of its assets and use the money to pay off its debts, then whatever remains belongs to the shareholders
∙In the case of a company going bankrupt the bond holders get first claim on what is left of the company (they are in contract). After all of the bondholders have been paid, IF there is anything left that will go to the shareholders
∙That’s why stocks are a riskier investment than bonds
∙SHAREHOLDER’S EQUITY = ASSETS - LIABILITIES
Liquidity
∙Liquidity refers to the speed and ease with which an asset can be converted to cash
oGive example of factory machine versus cash holdings
∙2 things associated with liquidity
oEase of conversion – how easy is it for me to get cash for this?
oLoss of value – how much do I have to lower the price before I can get cash for this?
∙A highly liquid asset is one that can quickly be sold without having to lose money
∙An illiquid asset is one that I cannot sell quickly at the current price. For anyone to buy my asset, I have to lower the price by a lot before someone will want it. Illiquid means cash is not easy to get.
On the balance sheet, assets are listed in order of decreasing liquidity, meaning that the most liquid, the assets we can get cash for quickly, are listed first.
∙Current Assets are liquid. They include cash and assets that we expect to convert to cash over the next year
∙If an asset is liquid and it can be easily converted into money – then think of liquidity as valuable.
∙The more liquid a business is, less likely it is to experience financial distress. If a business has a lot of debt coming due, but cannot easily convert its assets to cash to pay those debts then the company will be in trouble.
There is a downside to liquid assets
∙They are less profitable to hold
∙If a company has a lot of cash holdings – are they earning any money with that cash? Not much.
∙Trade-off between the advantages of liquidity and potential earnings
Market Value versus Book Value
∙Market value – the amount of cash we would get if we sold the asset. Also called its true value.
∙Book value – the value of assets which are shown on the book – generally do not show an assets true worth
oWhat this means is that assets are reported on the balance sheet at what the firm paid for them, no matter how long ago they were purchased or how much they are worth today
oCan also think of book value as historical cost
∙The market value will not be found on the balance sheet – makes no connection between the total asset costs and market value of the firm
oSame goes for the equity value. What is printed on the balance sheet is not always the true market value of the equity. Market value is what is more important.
Which is more important in the decision making process?
The Income Statement
∙The income statement measures performance over some period of time
∙Revenues – Expenses = Net Income
∙Recognition principle – is to recognize revenue at the time of sale
oWhen a sale is made, does that mean that the company immediately collects that money?
∙Matching principle – the idea is to first determine revenues and then match those revenues with the costs associated with producing them
∙Therefore, numbers on the income statement may not be accurate in showing the real cash inflows and outflows
Non-cash items – expenses charged against revenues that do not directly affect the cash flow
∙Depreciation is most common non-cash item.
oIf a firm buys a factory machine for 2,000 RNB it will pay that in cash. If it pays it in cash, then in reality the company has a cash outflow at that time of purchase. But on the income statement, the company will depreciate the asset over a certain time period and make small deductions a little bit at a time.
oCan think of depreciation as another form of the matching principle. The revenues from purchasing an asset occur overtime and not right away. So depreciation is a way of matching the expense of an asset with benefits from owning it.
Cash Flow
When I saw cash flow, it simply means the difference between money coming in and the number going out.
∙Recall the formula Assets = Liabilities + Shareholder’s Equity
∙Same goes for cash flow: Cash flow from Assets = Cash flow to creditors + Cash flow to stockholders
∙Our focus: how cash is generated from the use of assets and how it is paid to those who finance the asset purchase
Cash Flow from Assets
∙Involves 3 components:
**When going over examples DO NOT erase the answers!
oOperating Cash Flow – cash flow that results from the firm’s day-to-day activities of producing and selling
▪When calculating OCF we want to calculate Revenues – Costs. But, we don’t want to include depreciation because it isn’t a cash outflow. And we don’t want to include interest because that is an expense that is associated with financing and not day-to-day operations. However, taxes are included because they are paid in cash.
▪Go Over Example of Calculations.
∙EBIT + Depreciation (not cash flow) – Taxes (taxes are paid out) = OCF
▪OCF tells us whether or not a firm’s cash inflows are enough to cover cash outflows. So a negative OCF is a sign of trouble.
oCapital Spending – is the net spending on fixed assets, meaning how much assets we spent buying fixed assets – how much money we received from selling our assets. Purchases – Sales.
▪Go Over Example of Calculations
∙Ending Net Fixed Assets – Beginning Net Fixed Assets + Depreciation = Net Investment on Fixed Assets
oChange in Net Working Capital – NWC is defined as the difference between Current Assets and Current Liabilities. So NWC = Current Assets – Current Liabilities. Think of it like, how much capital (or assets) does the company have to work with.
▪What we are trying to figure out with NWC is – will the cash that we will receive within the next 12 months be more than the cash that will go out to pay our liabilities within the next 12 months.
▪The CHANGE in NWC is = Ending NWC – Beginning NWC
∙Or [(Current Assets in Year 2 – Current Liabilities in Year 2) – (Current Assets in Year 1 – Current Liabilities in Year 1)]
▪Go Over Example
Cash Flow from Assets = OCF – Net Capital Spending – Change in Net Working Capital
∙If negative, than that means the firm raised more money by borrowing and selling stock than it paid out to the bondholders and stockholders. Not uncommon for growing companies.
∙Cash Flow From Assets can also be called Free Cash Flow – meaning that the money left over from operations after it is spent on fixed assets and paying current liabilities is FREE for the firm to decide what to do with it.
Cash Flow to Creditors and Stockholders
Cash Flow to Creditors – the interest paid – net new borrowing
∙The interest paid is found on the income statement. Net new borrowing is the Ending Long-term Debt – Beginning Long-term Debt
Cash Flow to Stockholders – dividends paid – net new equity raised
∙Dividends paid is found on the income statement. Net New Equity Raised is Ending Common Stock – Beginning Common Stock
On Day 2: Review last class. Clarify terms such as depreciation, what “net” means, and working capital.
∙Continue with the material that is left over.
∙Have them do the case in class in groups.
∙Go over the case if there is time, or have them finish it for homework.