
钢筋混凝土
Reinforced concrete is concrete in which reinforcement bars ("rebars"), reinforcement grids, plates or fibers have been incorporated to strengthen the concrete in tension. It was invented by French gardener Joseph Monier in 1849 and patented in 1867. The term Ferro Concrete refers only to concrete that is reinforced with iron or steel. Other materials used to reinforce concrete can be organic and inorganic fibers as well as composites in different forms. Concrete is strong in compression, but weak in tension, thus adding reinforcement increases the strength in tension. In addition, the failure strain of concrete in tension is so low that the reinforcement has to hold the cracked sections together. For a strong, ductile and durable construction the reinforcement shall have the following properties:
钢筋混凝土就是混凝土中应用钢筋、钢筋网、钢板、纤维共同作用来承受拉力。1849年,一位名叫Joseph Monier 的法国园丁发明了钢筋混凝土,并于1867年申请专利。术语中所指的钢筋混凝土仅指利用铸铁或者钢进行增强的混凝土。此外一些有机纤维、无机纤维或者很多形式的复合材料也可用来增强混凝土。混凝土的抗压能力很强,但是抗拉能力很弱,因此这些增强措施提高了混凝土的抗拉能力。另外因为混凝土的抗拉能力很弱,所采用的增强措施必须具备将混凝土破碎的部分连接起来的功能。一个结构坚固、延展性好、耐久的混凝土结构需要具备以下的性能:
∙High strength
∙High tensile strain
∙Good bond to the concrete
∙Thermal compatibility
∙Durability in the concrete environment
∙强度高
∙抗拉刚度高
∙混凝土之间粘结性能好
∙温度相容性
∙耐久性好
In most cases reinforced concrete uses steel rebars that have been inserted to add strength.
在大多数情况下利用在混凝土中配置钢筋的方式来提高强度。
Use in construction
在建筑中的应用
Concrete is reinforced to give it extra tensile strength; without reinforcement, many concrete buildings would not have been possible.
混凝土的增强钢筋主要是提高混凝土的抗拉强度;正是混凝土采用钢筋才使得许多混凝土建筑成为可能。
Reinforced concrete can encompass many types of structures and components, including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames and more.
钢筋混凝土包括许多种类的结构和构件,例如楼板、墙,梁,柱,基础,框架等等。
Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast in-situ concrete.
钢筋混凝土可以归类为预制混凝土和现浇混凝土。
Much of the focus on reinforcing concrete is placed on floor systems. Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures. Small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building.
工程中主要承担荷载的钢筋混凝土构件是楼盖系统。设计并施工建造最有效的楼盖系统是达到理想的建筑结构的关键。楼盖设计的一个小小的改变会对材料费,施工进度,强度极限,生产费用,居住水平,和建筑的最终用途产生很大的影响。
Behavior of reinforced concrete
钢筋混凝土的性能
Materials
材料
Concrete is a mixture of of coarse (stone or brick chips) and fine (generally sand) aggregates with a binder material (usually Portland cement). When mixed with a small amount of water, the cement hydrates form microscopic opaque crystal lattices encapsulating and locking the aggregate into a rigid structure. Typical concrete mixes have high resistance to compressive stresses (about 4,000psi (28MPa)); however, any appreciable tension (e.g., due to bending) will break the microscopic rigid lattice, resulting in cracking and separation of the concrete. For this reason, typical non-reinforced concrete must be well supported to prevent the development of tension.
混凝土由是粗的(石头或碎砖块)和细的(普通的沙子)骨料与胶凝材料(通常是硅酸盐水泥)混合制成的。当掺入少量水,水泥与水化合形成微小的不透明的晶体,将整体封闭成一个稳定的结构。混凝土混合物的典型特征是有很强的受压能力(大约是28MPa);然而,任何拉力(由于拉力造成的弯曲)都会打破微观的晶格从而导致混凝土裂缝和分离。也是由于这个原因,无钢筋的素混凝土主要是防止受拉破坏。
If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in concrete, then the composite material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct tensile actions. A reinforced concrete section where the concrete resists the compression and steel resists the tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry.
像复合材料,钢筋混凝土等有很强的抗拉能力的材料,他们不仅能够抗压抗拉还能够抗弯或者是抵抗其他形式的拉力。钢筋和混凝土分工协作,混凝土抗压,钢筋抗拉,在建筑行业中钢筋混凝土的形式可以被制成任何形状和任何大小。
Key characteristics :Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties.
主要性能:三个使钢筋混凝土有独特性能的物理特征
First, the coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is similar to that of steel, eliminating large internal stresses due to differences in thermal expansion or contraction.
第一,混凝土的温度膨胀系数与钢筋相近,消除了由于温度膨胀系数不同导致过大的应力和收缩。
Second, when the cement paste within the concrete hardens this conforms to the surface details of the steel, permitting any stress to be transmitted efficiently between the different materials. Usually steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the bond or cohesion between the concrete and steel.
第二,水泥浆依附在钢筋表面,依据钢筋的螺纹形状而硬化,使得任何形式的应力能够在不同材料间高效的传递。通常钢筋是粗糙的或者有螺纹的,这样可以进一步增大混凝土和钢筋之间的粘结力。
Third, the alkaline chemical environment provided by the alkali reserve (KOH, NaOH) and the portlandite (calcium hydroxide) contained in the hardened cement paste causes a passivating film to form on the surface of the steel, making it much more resistant to corrosion than it would be in neutral or acidic conditions. When the cement paste exposed to the air and meteoric water reacts with the atmospheric CO2, portlandite and the Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH) of the hardened cement paste become progressively carbonated and the high pH gradually decreases from 13.5 – 12.5 to 8.5, the pH of water in equilibrium with calcite (calcium carbonate) and the steel is no longer passivated.
第三,存留的碱性物质(KOH,NaOH)和水泥浆中含有的氢氧钙石形成了碱性的化学环境,无形中在钢筋的表面形成了一层钝化膜,使得钢筋比在中性环境和酸性环境中更加抗腐蚀。当水泥浆被暴露在空气中时,大气水和空气中的CO2相互作用使得硬化的水泥浆中的氢氧钙石和水化硅酸钙含碳量逐渐增加,pH值逐渐从13.5 – 12.5减少到8.5,水和碳酸钙维持的恒定pH值开始变化,钢筋也不再是钝化的。
As a rule of thumb, only to give an idea on orders of magnitude, steel is protected at pH above 11 but starts to corrode below 10 depending on steel characteristics and local physico-chemical conditions when concrete becomes carbonated. Carbonation of concrete along with chloride ingress are amongst the chief reasons for the failure of reinforcement bars in concrete.
一般说来,当混凝土碳化时,根据钢筋的性能和当地的物理化学条件,钢筋在pH大于11时处于保护状态,但pH小于10时开始腐蚀。碳化混凝土被氯离子侵蚀是混凝土中的钢筋被腐蚀的最主要原因。
The relative cross-sectional area of steel required for typical reinforced concrete is usually quite small and varies from 1% for most beams and slabs to 6% for some columns. Reinforcing bars are normally round in cross-section and vary in diameter. Reinforced concrete structures sometimes have provisions such as ventilated hollow cores to control their moisture & humidity.
相对来说,一般的钢筋混凝土对钢筋截面面积要求非常小,通常只有大多数的梁、板配筋率要求为1%,柱配筋率要求为6%。钢筋通常是直径不同的圆钢。为了控制合理的湿度,钢筋混凝土结构有时会对通风口有要求。
Distribution of concrete (in spite of reinforcement) strength characteristics along the cross-section of vertical reinforced concrete elements is inhomogeneous article "Concrete Inhomogeneity of Vertical Cast-In-Situ Elements In Frame-Type Buildings"
依据文章“框架结构中竖向现浇构件混凝土的不均匀性”我们可以了解到,竖向钢筋混凝土构件虽然得到了增强,但在内部沿着钢筋,混凝土的应力分布也是不均匀的。
Reinforcement and terminology of Beams
梁的增强和概念
A beam bends under bending moment, resulting in a small curvature. At the outer face (tensile face) of the curvature the concrete experiences tensile stress, while at the inner face (compressive face) it experiences compressive stress.
梁在弯矩的作用下会产生一个小的弯曲变形。 在弯曲外表面(拉伸面)混凝土产生拉应力,在弯曲内表面(压缩面)混凝土产生压应力。
A singly-reinforced beam is one in which the concrete element is only reinforced near the tensile face and the reinforcement, called tension steel, is designed to resist the tension.
单筋梁是指只在混凝土构件受拉区设置抗拉钢筋,用来抵抗拉力。
A doubly-reinforced beam is one in which besides the tensile reinforcement the concrete element is also reinforced near the compressive face to help the concrete resist compression. The latter reinforcement is called compression steel. When the compression zone of a concrete is inadequate to resist the compressive moment (positive moment), extra reinforcement has to be provided if the architect limits the dimensions of the section.
双筋梁是指混凝土梁既设置抗拉钢筋来抵抗拉力,也在受压区设置抗压钢筋。当构件受压区混凝土不足以抵抗弯矩(正弯矩)所产生的压力时,且构件的设计截面尺寸受到了,那就需要额外的钢筋增强。
An under-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tensile reinforcement is smaller than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (under-reinforced at tensile face). When the reinforced concrete element is subject to increasing bending moment, the tension steel yields while the concrete does not reach its ultimate failure condition. As the tension steel yields and stretches, an "under-reinforced" concrete also yields in a ductile manner, exhibiting a large deformation and warning before its ultimate failure. In this case the yield stress of the steel governs the design.
适筋梁是梁受拉区的抗拉能力比受压区的混凝土和抗压钢筋的抗压能力弱的梁(受拉区适筋)。当混凝土构件的弯矩逐渐增加,抗拉钢筋屈服,此时混凝土并没有达到极限破坏条件。随着抗拉钢筋的屈服和拉伸,“适筋”混凝土也以一种韧性破坏的方式屈服,并在最终破坏前有较大形变,产生预兆。所以,在设计时应该主要考虑钢筋的屈服强度。
An over-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tension steel is greater than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (over-reinforced at tensile face). So the "over-reinforced concrete" beam fails by crushing of the compressive-zone concrete and before the tension zone steel yields, which does not provide any warning before failure as the failure is instantaneous.
超筋梁是抗拉钢筋的抗拉能力比混凝土和抗压钢筋的抗压能力强的梁 (在受拉区超筋)。在受拉区钢筋屈服前,超筋梁受压区的混凝土就发生破坏,破坏非常突然,没有任何预兆。
A balanced-reinforced beam is one in which both the compressive and tensile zones reach yielding at the same imposed load on the beam, and the concrete will crush and the tensile steel will yield at the same time. This design criterion is however as risky as over-reinforced concrete, because failure is sudden as the concrete crushes at the same time of the tensile steel yields, which gives a very little warning of distress in tension failure.
少筋梁是指受拉区和受压区在同一荷载作用下达到屈服强度,混凝土突然破坏,抗拉钢筋也同时破坏。然而这种设计标准非常危险,混凝土和抗拉钢筋同时破坏,在破坏前几乎没有任何预兆。
Steel-reinforced concrete moment-carrying elements should normally be designed to be under-reinforced so that users of the structure will receive warning of impending collapse.
重要的钢筋混凝土构件通常都设计成适筋梁形式,这样在即将破坏前会有预兆。
The characteristic strength is the strength of a material where less than 5% of the specimen shows lower strength.
强度是材料的力学性能,通常取值低于材料的试件试验强度的5%。
The design strength or nominal strength is the strength of a material, including a material-safety factor. The value of the safety factor generally ranges from 0.75 to 0.85 in Allowable Stress Design.
材料强度包括材料强度的计值或标准值以及安全系数。在许用应力设计中,安全系数的值通常为0.75到0.85。
The ultimate limit state is the theoretical failure point with a certain probability. It is stated under factored loads and factored resistances.
极限状态是理论上的破坏点。它考虑到了荷载和抗力的因素。
Common failure modes of steel reinforced concrete
钢筋混凝土常见的破坏形式
Reinforced concrete can fail due to inadequate strength, leading to mechanical failure, or due to a reduction in its durability. Corrosion and freeze/thaw cycles may damage poorly designed or constructed reinforced concrete. When rebar corrodes, the oxidation products (rust) expand and tends to flake, cracking the concrete and unbonding the rebar from the concrete. Typical mechanisms leading to durability problems are discussed below.
钢筋混凝土由于强度不足和耐久性差会发生机械破坏。腐蚀、冻融都可能会导致设计有缺陷或者正在建设中的钢筋混凝土结构破坏。当钢筋受到侵蚀,氧化物(锈)的面积增加并开始剥落,导致混凝土开裂并使钢筋与混凝土剥离。下面将讨论典型的机械破坏所导致的耐久性问题。
Mechanical failure :Cracking of the concrete section can not be prevented; however, the size of and location of the cracks can be limited and controlled by reinforcement, placement of control joints, the curing methodology and the mix design of the concrete. Cracking defects can allow moisture to penetrate and corrode the reinforcement. This is a serviceability failure in limit state design. Cracking is normally the result of an inadequate quantity of rebar, or rebar spaced at too great a distance. The concrete then cracks either under excess loading, or due to internal effects such as early thermal shrinkage when it cures.
机械破坏:混凝土截面开裂是不能避免的,但是可以通过技术手段来控制裂缝的大小和位置,比如配筋、设置伸缩缝、养护方法或混凝土的配合比设计。裂缝会导致水气侵入并侵蚀钢筋。这就是极限状态设计中的正常使用极限状态破坏。产生裂缝通常是由于配筋不足、钢筋间距过大造成的。混凝土在荷载过大时会产生裂缝,混凝土的内部影像比如混凝土硬化时热收缩也会产生裂缝。
Ultimate failure leading to collapse can be caused by crushing of the concrete, when compressive stresses exceed its strength; by yielding or failure of the rebar, when bending or shear stresses exceed the strength of the reinforcement; or by bond failure between the concrete and the rebar.
导致混凝土最终破坏的原因可能有以下几种:压力超过抗压极限;钢筋屈服或破坏;弯曲应力或剪切应力超过钢筋混凝土承载极限;钢筋和混凝土之间的粘结失效破坏。
Carbonation
碳化作用
Carbonation, or neutralisation, is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the air with calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete. The water in the pores of Portland cement concrete is normally alkaline with a pH in the range of 12.5 to 13.5. This highly alkaline environment is one in which the embedded steel is passivated and is protected from corrosion. According to the Pourbaix diagram for iron, the metal is passive when the pH is above 9.5.[5] The carbon dioxide in the air reacts with the alkali in the cement and makes the pore water more acidic, thus lowering the pH. Carbon dioxide will start to carbonate the cement in the concrete from the moment the object is made. This carbonation process will start at the surface, then slowly move deeper and deeper into the concrete. The rate of carbonation is dependent on the relative humidity of the concrete - a 50% relative humidity being optimal. If the object is cracked, the carbon dioxide in the air will be better able to penetrate into the concrete. When designing a concrete structure, it is normal to state the concrete cover for the rebar (the depth within the object that the rebar will be). The minimum concrete cover is normally regulated by design or building codes. If the reinforcement is too close to the surface, early failure due to corrosion may occur. The concrete cover depth can be measured with a cover meter. However, carbonated concrete only becomes a durability problem when there is also sufficient moisture and oxygen to cause electro-potential corrosion of the reinforcing steel.
碳化作用和中和作用是空气中的二氧化碳和混凝土中的氢氧化钙、含水硅酸钙之间的化学反应。硅酸盐混凝土气孔中的水分通常呈碱性,pH值在12.5至13.5之间。这种高碱性环境会使埋置的钢筋钝化,防止钢筋腐蚀。根据铁的电位-pH图,在pH值高于9.5时,金属是钝化的。空气中的二氧化碳与水泥中的碱性物质作用,会降低气孔中水的pH值。一旦有条件,二氧化碳会充满水泥的气孔。这种碳化过程从混凝土的表面开始,然后慢慢的深入混凝土中。碳化速率依赖于混凝土的相对湿度,相对湿度50%是最佳条件。一旦混凝土某处产生破裂,空气中的二氧化碳就能顺利的进入混凝土内部。设计混凝土结构时,通常都会设计混凝土保护层来保护钢筋(整个构件内部的钢筋)。设计或施工规范都规定了最小的混凝土保护层厚度。如果钢筋距离外表面过近,钢筋可能会很快被腐蚀。混凝土保护层厚度可以用保护层厚度测定仪进行测量。然而,当水分和氧气含量很高时钢筋会发生电离腐蚀,混凝土碳化就成了一个耐久性问题了。
One method of testing a structure for carbonation is to drill a fresh hole in the surface and then treat the cut surface with phenolphthalein indicator solution. This solution will turn [pink] when in contact with alkaline concrete, making it possible to see the depth of carbonation. An existing hole is no good because the exposed surface will already be carbonated.
检测一个结构的碳化程度的方法是在表面钻一个小洞,在小洞的切面用酚酞指示剂检测。弱指示剂显示粉色,则说明下层的混凝土呈碱性。钻出的小洞对混凝土是不利的,暴露在空气中的部分将很快被碳化。
Chlorides
氯化物
Chlorides, including sodium chloride, can promote the corrosion of embedded steel rebar if present in sufficiently high concentration. Chloride anions induce both localized corrosion (pitting corrosion) and generalized corrosion of steel reinforcements. For this reason, one should only use fresh raw water or potable water for mixing concrete, insure that the coarse and fine aggregates do not contain chlorides, and not use admixtures that contain chlorides.
在高浓度的氯化物包括氯化钠中,会加快腐蚀配置的钢筋。氯离子会导致局部腐蚀(点状腐蚀)和钢筋的腐蚀。因此,混合混凝土需要用未加工的水或者是饮用水,并确保粗骨料细骨料不含有氯离子,也不要加入带有氯离子的外加剂。
It was once common for calcium chloride to be used as an admixture to promote rapid set-up of the concrete. It was also mistakenly believed that it would prevent freezing. However, this practice has fallen into disfavor once the deleterious effects of chlorides became known. It should be avoided when ever possible.
氯化钙作为一种外加剂,通常用做加速混凝土的初凝。也经常被误认为能够抗冻。然而,当发现氯化物的腐蚀作用时这种观念也被推翻了。要尽一切可能的阻止氯化物的存在。
The use of de-icing salts on roadways, used to reduce the freezing point of water, is probably one of the primary causes of premature failure of reinforced or prestressed concrete bridge decks, roadways, and parking garages. The use of epoxy-coated reinforcing bars and the application of cathodic protection has mitigated this problem to some extent. Also FRP rebars are known to be less susceptible to chlorides. Properly designed concrete mixtures that have been allowed to cure properly are effectively impervious to the effects of deicers.
除冰盐通常被用在路面上,因为除冰盐可以降低水的凝固点,这也是钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土桥面,道路,停车场过早被破坏的主要原因之一。使用环氧树脂涂覆钢、阴极保护能够一定程度上减轻这种现象。另外FRP钢筋受氯离子的影响很小。设计合理的混凝土拌合物也可以有效的防止氯离子的侵蚀。
Another important source of chloride ions is from sea water. Sea water contains by weight approximately 3.5wt% salts. These salts include sodium chloride, magnesium sulfate, calcium sulfate, and bicarbonates. In water these salts dissociate in free ions (Na+, Mg2+, Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-) and migrate with the water into the capillaries of the concrete. Chloride ions are particularly aggressive for the corrosion of the carbon steel reinforcement bars and make up about 50% of these ions.
氯离子的另一个主要来源是海水。海水重量的3.5 %是盐。这些盐包含氯化钠,硫酸镁,硫酸钙和碳酸氢盐。在水中,这些盐分是游离状态的,以Na+, Mg2+, Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-离子形式存在,随着水进入混凝土内部。氯离子占这些离子总数50%对碳化钢筋的腐蚀效果非常强。
In the 1960's and 1970's it was also relatively common for Magnesite, a chloride rich carbonate mineral, to be used as a floor-topping material. This was done principally as a levelling and sound attenuating layer. However it is now known that when these materials came into contact with moisture it produced a weak solution of hydrochloric acid due to the presence of chlorides in the magnesite. Over a period of time (typically decades) the solution caused corrosion of the embedded steel rebars. This was most commonly found in wet areas or areas repeatedly exposed to moisture.
上世纪60年代至70年代比较常见的菱镁矿是含丰富氯离子的碳酸盐矿物,通常作为楼板面层材料,起到抄平和隔音的作用。然而现在才知道,这些材料与水接触后,氯离子会发生弱解反应产生盐酸。很长一段时间里(大概几十年),这都是引起钢筋腐蚀的原因。在潮湿的地区和经常接触水份的地区,氯离子腐蚀的现象更为常见。
New words and expressions
[1]concrete [ˈkɒŋkri:t] n. 混凝土;
[2]cement [sɪˈment] n. 水泥;
[3]aggregate [ˈægrɪgət] n. 骨料;
[4]mortar [ˈmɔ:tə(r)] n. 砂浆;
[5]extender [ɪks'tendə] n. 掺合料;
[6]rigidity [rɪ'dʒɪdətɪ] n. 刚度
[7]creep [kri:p] n. 徐变;
[8]shear [ʃɪə(r)] n. 剪力;
[9]tension [ˈtenʃn] n. 拉力;
[10]displacement [dɪsˈpleɪsmənt] n.位移;
[11]stress [stres] n. 压力;
[12]strain [streɪn] n. 应变;
[13]slump [slʌmp] n. 坍落度;
[14]stadium [ˈsteɪdiəm] n. 龄期;
[15]reinforcing steel bar 钢筋;
[16]reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土;
[17]reinforced concrete structure 钢筋混凝土结构;
[18]prestressed reinforced concrete 预应力钢筋混凝土;
[19]prestressed reinforcement 预应力钢筋;
[20]cast-in-place reinforced concrete 现浇钢筋混凝土结构;
[21]non-reinforced concrete 素混凝土;
[22]cover to reinforcement 钢筋保护层;
[23]class of cube strength 强度等级;
[24]mixing time 拌和时间;
[25]concrete transportation time 混凝土运输时间;
[26]concreting temperature 浇筑温度;
[27]mixing proportion 配合比;
[28]concrete vibrating 振捣;
[29]cover to reinforcement 钢筋保护层;
[30]shear wall 剪力墙;
[31]shear deformation 剪切变形;
[32]percentage of elongation 延伸率;
[33]steel wire 箍筋;
[34]compressive strength 抗压强度;
[35]bending strength 抗弯强度;
[36]torsional strength 抗扭强度;
[37]tensile strength 抗拉强度
[38]crack [kræk] n. 裂缝;
[39]yield [ji:ld] n. 屈服;
[40]yield point 屈服点;
[41]yield load 屈服荷载;
[42]limit of yielding 屈服极限;
[43]yield strength 屈服强度;
[44]reinforcement ratio 配筋率;
[45]fatigue strength 疲劳强度;
[46]frame structure 框架结构
[47]pouring [pɔ:rɪŋ] v. 浇注;
[48]concreting ['kɒŋkri:tɪŋ] n. 浇注混凝土;
[49]rigid frame 刚架;
[50]brittle failure 脆性破坏;
Exercises
Ⅰ.Complete the following sentences
1.Reinforced concrete was invented by .
2.For a strong, ductile and durable construction the reinforcement shall have the following properties: , ,
, , .
3.Concrete is strong in compression , but , thus adding reinforcement .
4.Reinforced concrete can encompass many types of structures and components, including , , , ,
, and more.
5.Concrete is a mixture of .
Ⅱ.Translate the following into Chinese
1.Research the assessment index system of choice of concrete structure reinforced plan .
2.The application of using inflate concrete reinforcing technique in the ultra-length concrete structure .
3.Discuss on construction technology of strengthening reinforced concrete structure with steel plate adherence .
4.The research on mechanical properties and strengthening construction monitoring of reinforced concrete structure after fire .
5.Researches on prevention of cracking in concrete structures by heating the lower part of the structure .
Ⅲ.Translate the following sentences into English
1.混凝土结构施工裂缝产生原因及控制。
2.混凝土结构耐久性检测技术。
3.浅谈混凝土结构施工缝的设置和处理。
4.无粘结预应力混凝土结构技术规程。
5.钢筋混凝土结构构件非结构性裂缝的控制。
【答案】
Ⅰ
1.French gardener Joseph Monier in 1849 and patented in 1867
2.high strength, high tensile strain, good bond to the concrete, thermal compatibility , durability in the concrete environment
3.weak in tension, increases the strength in tension
4.slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames
5.coarse and fine aggregates with a binder material
Ⅱ
1.混凝土结构加固方案优选评价指标体系研究。
2.膨胀混凝土加强带在超长混凝土结构中的应用。
3.浅谈钢筋混凝土结构粘钢加固施工技术。
4.火灾后混凝土结构力学性能分析及加固施工监控应用研究。
5.加热下部混凝土以防止混凝土结构裂缝的探索。
Ⅲ
1.The causes and control of Construction cracks of concrete construction.
2.The test technology on durability of concrete structure.
3.On the setting and processing of construction joints in concrete structure.
4.Technical specification for concrete structures prestressed with unbounded tendons.
5.Control of non-structural cracks in reinforcing steel concrete structure components.
