
1/ What is linguistics?
什么是语言学?
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.
2/ The scope of linguistics
语言学的研究范畴
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)
The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. (语音学)
The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. (音系学)
The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. (形态学)
The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. (句法学)
The study of meaning in language is called semantics. (语义学)
The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. (语用学)
The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. (社会语言学)
The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. (心理语言学)
The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. (应用语言学)
But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.
Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, (人类语言学) neurological linguistics, (神经语言学) mathematical linguistics, (数字语言学)and computational linguistics. (计算机语言学)
3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics
语言学研究中的几对基本概念
Prescriptive and descriptive
描写与规定
If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar.
Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive.
The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.
Synchronic and diachronic
共时和历时
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.
Speech and writing
口头语与书面语
Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.
Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form.
Reasons:
●1. Speech precedes writing;
●2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form;
●3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.
Langue and parole [pə'rəul]
语言和言语
The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
语言能力和语言运用
Competence and performance
Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.
He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.
4/ What is language?
语言的定义
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Sapir,Edward uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition.
Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution.
Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.
5/ Design features
语言的甄别性特征
Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.
1) Arbitrariness
任意性(和约定俗成性)
It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and the animal it refers to. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example.
Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.
2) Productivity
能产性
Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before.
3) Duality
结构二重性
It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.
4) Displacement
语言的移位性(突破时空性)
It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
5) Cultural transmission
文化传播性
While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.
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Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学
1.The phonic medium of language
语言的声音媒介
Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.
Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.
For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.
The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) .
The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds (语音).
2.What is phonetics?
什么是语音学?
Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language;It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介,即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
three branches of phonetics
Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学), it studies the speech sounds from the speaker’s point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.
Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学),it studies the speech sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.
Acoustic phonetics(声学语音学),it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.
a
i
o
3. Organs of speech
发音器官
The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 the throat
The oral cavity 口腔 the mouth
The nasal cavity 鼻腔 the nose
语音解剖图
发音器官图
4.Orthographic representation of speech sounds –broad and narrow transcriptions
语音的书写形式-宽式和窄式音标
IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet
国际音标
There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符号) only, called broad transcription (宽式音标). The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号), called narrow transcription (窄式音标).
p音的比较
对pit/spit中p音的比较:
pit中的p是送气音,在窄式音标中标为上标,写作:[phit]
spit中的p是不送气音,在宽式音标中不作标示,写作:[spit]
l音的比较
对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较:
Leaf中l 在元音前,叫清晰音,在宽式音标中不作标示,写作:[li:f]
Feel中l出现在单词结尾,叫模糊音,在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]
Build中l出现在另一个辅音前,也叫模糊音,在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]
Health中l出现在齿音前,受其影响叫齿音[l],在窄式音标中加变音符号[II]
5.Classification of English speech sounds
英语语音的分类
Consonants
Vowels
a)Classification of English consonants
按发音方式分
Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
Fricative 擦音:[f] [v] [s] [z] [W] [T] [s] [V] [h]
Affricate 塞擦音:[tF][dV]
Liquid流音:[l] [r]
Nasal鼻音:[m] [n] [N]
Glide滑音:[w] [j]
a)Classification of English consonants
按发音部位分
Bilabial双唇音:[p] [b] [m] [w]
Labiodental唇齿音:[f] [v]
Dental齿音:[W] [T]
Alveolar齿龈音:[t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]
Palatal硬腭音:[V][tF][dV][i]
Velar软腭音:[k] [g] [N]
Glottal声门音:[h]
B) Classification of English vowels
按舌头在口中的位置分:
Front vowel前元音:[i:] [i] [e] [A] [a]
Central vowel中元音:[[:] [[] [Q]
Back vowel后元音:[u:] [u] [R:] [R] [a:]
B) Classification of English vowels
按口形的大小分:
Close vowel闭元音:[i:] [i] [u:] [u]
Semi-close vowel半闭元音:[e] [[:]
Open vowel开元音:[A] [a]
Semi-open vowel半开元音:[[] [R:] [Q] [R] [a:]
B) Classification of English vowels
按唇形是否为圆分
Unrounded vowel不圆唇元音:[i:] [i] [e] [A] [a] [[:] [[] [Q] [a:]
rounded vowel圆唇元音:[u:] [u] [R:] [R]
B) Classification of English vowels
按语音的长短分
Long vowel长元音[i:] [[:][a:] [u:] [R:]
Short vowel短元音[i] [e] [A] [a] [[] [Q] [u] [R]
6.Phonology 音系学
Phonology and phonetics
音系学和语音学
Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.
Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;
Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.
7.Phone, phoneme, and allophone
语音(音素)、音位、音位变体
Phone
Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.
语音是语言学研究的单位,是一个个具体的声音。语音是一个语音单位或一个切分成分,它并不一定能区分意义。
Phonology
Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. A phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
音位是音系学研究的单位,是抽象的概念,每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体,音位具有区别意义的作用。一个音位在语音上被具体体现为一个特定的语音(音素)。按照惯例,音位被置于两斜线之间,如/p/ /t/,而语音被置于方括号内,如[p] [t].
allophones
The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境里的具体体现,同一个音位在不同的语音环境里体现为不同的变体,也就是语音。
8.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
音位对立、互补分布、最小对立对
Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme.
相似的语音之间可能有两种关系。两个相似的语音如果是两个区别性音位,它们在意义上形成对立,如果是同一音位的变体,在意思上不形成对立。
phonemic contrast
The former( they are two distinctive phonemes ) is called phonemic contrast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning.
音位对立是指不同音位之间的关系,它们可以出现在不同的语音组合的同一位置,产生意义差别,如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。
complementary distribution
The latter( they do not form a contrast in meaning ) is called complementary distribution; they are two allophones of the same phoneme. They only occur in different environments.
互补分布是指音位变体之间的关系,同一个音位的不同变体在语音组合中永远不会出现在相同的位置上,它们没有区别意义的作用,如top中的送气的[p]和stop中不送气的[p]。
The way
A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.
确定一种语言的音位的一个基本途径是,看如果用一个语音代替另一个是否会产生不同的意义。如果产生了,那么这两个语音就代表不同的音位。为此,一个简单的办法就是找出最小对立对。
a minimal pair
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
最小对立对是指除了出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合,如[pen]和[ben]。
9.Some rules in phonology
几条音系规则
A) sequential rules
系列规则
The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.
在一种特定的语言中,语音的组合是受规则制约的,这些规则叫做系列规则。
重要的规则:
I. 如果单词以[l] 或[r] 为首,其后的一个语音必定为元音,如rude, last, leap
II. 如果三个辅音同时出现在单词词首,则:第一音位必定为/s/,第二音位必定是/p//t//k/,第三音位必定是/l//r//w/,如strict, splendid, spring
III. 塞擦音[tʃ][dv]和咝音[s] [z] [F] [V] 后不能紧跟另一个咝音,如teach变复数为teaches[[ti:tʃiz]。
IV. 制约音位模式的规则是随语言的不同而不同的,英语中适用,其它语言却不适用。
B) assimilation rules
同化规则
The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.
同化规则即通过“模仿”一个系列音位的一个特征使一个语音与另一个语音相似,从而使两个音素变得相似。
重要的规则:
I. 元音后紧跟一个鼻音时,该元音要鼻音话。如bean/ green 中的[i:]音。
II. 在一个单词中,鼻音[n]所处的发音部位和紧随其后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。如correct –incorrect。
III.语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。如possible的否定形式是impossible,是因为[n]音同化成了[m]音。
C)deletion rules
省略规则
The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.
省略规则告诉我们什么时候一个语音尽管在拼写中存在,但在发音中却省略了。
重要的规则:
如[g]音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省略。如sign中的[g]音不发音。而在加了后缀的signature中,[g]却要发音的。
10. Suprasegmental features- stress, tone, intonation
超切分特征:重音、声调和语调
Distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.
区别性特征也可以在由两个或多个音位切分成分所组成的系列中体现出来。出现在切分层面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征。它们时音节、单词和句子等语言单位的音系特征。主要的超切分特征包括重音、音调和语调。
A) Stress 重音
重要的规则:
I. 一个单词如果既可以作名词,又可以作动词,则名词重音在第一个音节上,相应的动词重音则在第二个音节上。如import。
II. 英语复合词的重音常在第一个成分上,第二个成分是次重音。如hotdog。
B) Tone 声调
汉语的声调
C) Intonation
语调
When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
当音高、重音和音长依附于一个句子而不是单个单词时,这些音素合起来叫做语调。
English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the first three.
英语中有四种基本语调:降调、升调、降升调、升降调。最常用的是前三种。
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Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学
What is Morphology?
•Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
•形态学是语法的一个分支,研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
two sub-branches
•Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.
•形态学可分为两个分支科学:屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。前者研究词的屈折变化,后者研究词的构成。
1. Morpheme 语素
•The smallest meaningful unit of language语言最小的意义单位。
•
•The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.
•语素表达的意义有两种:词汇意义和语法意义。
2.Types of morphemes 语素的分类
•Free
•Bound
a) Free morphemes
•自由语素
•
•Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.
•自由语素是的意义单位,能够独自自由使用,当然也可以和其它语素结合使用。
b) Bound morphemes
•黏着语素
•
•Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
•黏着语素是那些不能单独使用,而必须和其它语素-自由语素或黏着语素-结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素。
3. Types of bound morphemes
• 黏着语素的分类
•Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes 词根和词缀。
•
Root
•A root is often seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
•词根被看作是词的一部分,它有清楚、明确的意思,但不能单独存在,它必须和另一个词根或词缀组合构成单词。
Affixes
•Affixes are of two types:
•1. inflectional
•2.derivational
•屈折词缀和派生词缀
Inflectional affixes
•Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.
•屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴,如:数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。
The English inflectional affixes
•-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名词复数
•-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense 表示现在时的第三人称单数
•-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示过去时
•-ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示进行时
•-er, indicating comparative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容词和副词比较级
•-est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和副词最高级
•-‘s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名词的所有格
Derivational affixes
•Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
•派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式,这样的方式叫派生法,用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。能够加上一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。
Example
•Tolerate 词根toler- + 词缀-ate
•Quickly 自由语素quick + 词缀-ly
•Carelessness 自由语素care +词缀-less 形成的派生词careless +词缀-ness
•
Prefixes and Suffixes
•Affixes are divided into two kinds:
•-prefixes
•-suffixes
•前缀和后缀
Prefixes
•Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes “be-” and “en (m)-”.
•前缀改变词干的意思,但通常不改变原词的词性。“be-” 和“en (m)-”是例外。
Suffixes
•Suffixes are added to the end of the stem, they modify=y the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
•后缀加在词干的末尾,改变原词的意思,并且在多数情况下,改变原词的词性。
4. Morphological rules 形态学规则
•Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word.
•形态学规则主要指英语中通过派生方式构成新词的构词规则,即将词缀加到词干上去构成新词的规则。学习者必须掌握这些规则,但又要注意不能过分概括这些规则,以免生造出不存在的单词。
5. Types of compound words
•复合词的类型
–Noun + noun 名词+名词 如:handbook, sunshine
–Adjective +noun 形容词+名词 如:highway, sweetheart
–Adjective +noun +ed 形容词+名词+ed 如:white-haired, green=eyed
–Verb +noun 动词+名词 如:pickpocket, driveway
–Adverb +noun 副词+名词 如:downtown, upgrade
–Noun +verb 名词+动词 如:toothpick, snowfall
–Verb +adverb 动词+副词 如:follow-up, kick-off
–Noun +adjective 名词+形容词 如:world-famous, life-long
–-ing form +noun -ing形式+名词 如:dining-room, reading-glasses
–Other forms 其它形式 如:go-between, father-in-law, upbringing, have-nots, thank-you note
6. Features of compounds
•1) Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.
•在拼写上,复合词既可以写成一个词,中间加连字符或不加连字符,也可以分开写。如armchair, follow-up, thunder bird
•2) Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.
•在语法上,复合词的词性一般取决于复合词中第二个成分的词性。如icy-cold是形容词,head-strong也是形容词,greenhouse是名词。而例外的情况有:follow-up, crackdown, kickoff都是名词而不是副词,而toothpick, snowfall, facelift都是名词而不是动词。
•3) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.
•在语意上,复合词的意义具有习语特性,许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分的意义的总和。如hotdog, greenhouse等。
•4) Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.
•在语音上,复合词的重音总是在第一个构成成分上,而次重音在第二个构成成分上。
•这一点可以帮助我们用来区分两种-ing的形式,一种是作为名词前修饰语的-ing形式,另一种是作为复合词的前一部分。如running dog 重音在running上,表示“走狗”这一-ing形式+名词的复合词。如重音在dog上,则表示running用来修饰dog,意为“还在跑的狗”。
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Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学
1.What is Syntax?
•Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.
•句法学研究语言的句子结构。该术语来自希腊语,字意是排列。句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。句法是一个规则系统。
2. Syntax as a system of rules
•句法是规则系统
•Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.
•句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统,句子由单词组合而成。句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。任何一种语言的句法规则都包含了说话者的头脑中的语言知识系统(称为语言能力)。
Finite and no limit
•The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
•任何语言的句法规则的数量是有限的,但说话者可以理解和表达的句子的数量是无限的。
3. The basic components of a sentence
•句子的构成
•A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject(主语)and its predicate(谓语)which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
•句子是一个结构和完整的语法单位,这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整的陈述句、问句或命令。一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语,而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。
subject
•The referring expression(被指称的对象), such as a person, a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, is grammatically called subject. A subject is usually a noun or a noun phrase.
•主语是指句子中被指称的对象,如人、物、事、概念等。主语通常由名词或名词词组构成。
predicate
•The part of sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood.
•谓语是指对句子中主语进行表述或判断的部分。谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。限定动词常被称为句子的中心动词,表述存在、动作或出现,限定动词送人称、数、时态和情态的。
4.Types of sentence
•句子的类型
a) The simple sentence
•简单句
•A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
•简单句由一个子句构成,该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语,且构成句子。
b) The coordinate sentence
•并列句
•
•A coordinate sentence contains two clause joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”but””or”.
•并列句包含两个子句,由and, but, or 等并列连词连接。
c) The complex sentence
•复合句
•
•A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. That is, the two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.
•复合句包含两个或两个以上的子句,其中一个被并入另一个句子。复合句中两个句子的地位是不同的,一个句子从属于另一个句子。被并入或是从属的子句通常被称为子句,而包含子句的子句被称为主句。
5. The linear word order of a sentence
• 句子的线性词序
•
•When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. Meanwhile, they are heard or read as arranged one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is linear.
•我们说出或写下一个句子,其中的词语是按次序一个接一个出现的。同时,对方也是一个接一个次序听到这个词语的。句子中词语的这种有次序的排列表明,句子的结构是线性的。
6. The hierarchical structure of a sentence
• 句子的层次结构
•
•The superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly structured. Sentence structure is hierarchical in nature.
•
•组成句子的单词表面上的线性排列并不意味着句子仅仅是线性结构的。句子实际上是有层次结构的。
7. Tree diagrams of sentence structure
• 句子结构树形图
•
•The hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diagram of constituent structure.
•句子的层次结构可以用各组成部分的树形图来很好地说明。见课文67-70页。
•In addition, the hierarchical structure of sentences can also be illustrated by using brackets and subscript labels.
•另外,句子的层次结构还可以用括号和写在下角的标记来标示。见课文71页。
8. Lexical categories 词类
•Words are organized into groups of lexical categories, commonly known as parts of speech. A language has major and minor lexical categories. Major lexical categories are open categories that new words are constantly added. Minor lexical categories are closed categories because the number of the lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for. English has four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories.
•所有的词都有某种属性,即词性。词可以分为主要词类和次要词类。主要词类不断有新词加入,它是开放词类,而次要词类是封闭的,因为这类词的词项是固定的,不允许有新词加入。
•英语有四个主要词类和六个次要词类。
•
•主要词类:
•Noun (N) 名词:student
•Verb (V) 动词:like
•Adjective (Adj) 形容词:tall
•Adverb (Adv) 副词:loudly
•次要词类:
•Determiner (Det) 限定词:the, a, this, his
•Auxiliary (Aux) 助动词:can, do, will
•Preposition (Prep) 介词:in, at, over
•Pronoun (Pron) 代词:he, she, us, mine
•Conjunction (Conj) 连词:and, or, but, while
•Interjection (Int) 感叹词:oh, ah, eh
9. Phrasal categories
•词组类型
•Four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), prepositional phrase (PP), and adjective phrase (AP).
•NP and VP are essential components of a sentence, comprising the subject and predicate.
•通常讨论的词组类型有四种,分别是:名词词组,动词词组,介词词组和形容词词组。
•名词词组和动词词组是句子中最重要的词组,因为它们构成了句子的主语和谓语。
True or False?
•Important note: NP just contain a noun, VP just contain a verb, PP just contain a preposition and AP just contain an adjective.
•重要:一个名词词组只包含一个名词,一个动词词组只包含一个动词,一个介词词组只包含一个介词,一个形容词词组只包含一个形容词。
10. Grammatical relations
•语法关系
•The structural and logical function relations of constituents are called grammatical relations.
•语法关系是指句子中名词词组和动词的关系,其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。
N-V
•The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb.
•从结构上看,英语句子中的主语往往出现在动词之前,宾语往往出现在动词止回。
S-V,V-O
•In English and many other languages, the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.
Structural and logical
•Strictly speaking, this statement is true only in terms of the structural subject(结构主语) and the structural object(结构宾语).
•The logical subject (逻辑主语)and the logical object(逻辑宾语) may have different positions.
中文翻译参考
•语法关系是指句子中名词词组和动词的关系,其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。从结构上看,英语句子中的主语往往出现在动词之前,宾语往往出现在动词止回。这种置动词之前的主语叫结构主语,置动词之后的宾语叫结构宾语。结构主语和结构宾语只是句子的形式主语和形式宾语,而意义上的主语和宾语才是句子的逻辑主语和逻辑宾语。逻辑主语是实施者,而逻辑宾语是受事者。逻辑主语和逻辑宾语在句子中的位置可以同形式主语和形式宾语在句子中的位置相同,也可以不同。如英语被动句中的形式主语是逻辑宾语,而形式宾语是逻辑主语。
11. Phrasal structure rules
•短语结构规则
•The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule.
•短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。
Example 1
•S → NP VP. The arrow is read as “consist of”, or “is rewritten as” 。
•The rule is: a sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase.
•在本例中,箭头读作“包含”或“重写为”。这样的规则就读作:一个句子包含或可以重写为一个名词词组和一个动词词组。
Example 2
•NP → (Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)
•A noun phrase consists of, or is rewritten as, an optional determiner, an optional adjective, an obligatory noun, an optional prepositional phrase, and/or an optional sentence.
•这就是名词词组的短语结构规则,读作:一个名词词组包含或可以重写为一个限定词、一个形容词、一个名词、一个介词词组和(或)一个句子,其中名词是必须有的,其它是可选成分。
Example 3
•VP → V(NP)(PP)(S)
•AP → A(PP)(S)
•PP → P NP
12. The recursiveness of phrase structure rules
•短语结构规则的循环性
•Significantly, these rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.
•由于这些短语规则的循环性,运用它们可以造出无数句子,这些句子又可以是无限长的。
•Although these rules are part of the rules and regulations of the grammar, they suffice[sə'fais] to explain how language is “creative”, and how speakers with “finite” minds have the ability to produce and understand an infinite set of sentences. That is, the recursive[ri'kə:siv] property captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence.
•这些规则虽然只是语法规则的一部分,却足以解释为什么语言具有创造性,为什么说话人的记忆力是有限的,却能表达并理解无限的句子。这就是说,循环性体现了语言中的句子能够有更多的成分,并且使说话者能够在同一个句子中重复一些句法成分。
13. X-bar theory
•X标杆理论
•NP/VP/AP/PP all must contain one obligatory [ə'bligətəri]word, we call XP. This means that XP must contain X, where XP stands respectively for NP/VP/AP/PP and X stands for N/V/A/P.
•The rule modified as:
•XP → (Specifier) X (Complement).
•X 标杆理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X标杆规则理论。根据该理论,短语由指示语、核心词和补语组成,其中指示语和补语可有可无,但核心词却不可缺少。
14. Syntactic movement and movement rules
•句法位移和移位规则
•
a) NP movement
•名词词组位移
•
•NP-movement occurs when a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice.
•Example: The man beat the child. / The child was beaten by the man.
•名词词组从原先所处的位置移至另一位置的句法现象叫做名词词组位移。
•例如,在主动语态句中当主语的名词词组和充当宾语的名词词组可以逆向移位,使句子转换成被动语态。
•Not all NP-movement are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice.
•Example: It seems they are quite fit for the job. / They seem quite fit for the job.
•NP “they” has moved from the subject position of the embedded clause to the matrix clause.
•并不是所有的名词词组位移都和主动语态转被动语态相关。示例中的they由从句的主语位置位移到了主句的主语位置。
WH movement
•b) WH位移
• WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. WH-movement is syntactically required when the sentence changes from a statement into a question.
•WH位移能把句子从肯定句变为疑问句,在英语中不可缺少的。
c) Other types of movement
•其它类型的位移
(1) General questions
•(一般疑问句)
• in English may also involve syntactic movement with AUX-movement. AUX-movement is the movement of an auxiliary verb, such as be/have/do/will/can/should, to the sentence-initial position.
•Example: She is an English professor. / Is she an English professor?
•一般疑问句也会通过助动词移位引起句法移位,助动词移位即助动词移到句首的移位,助动词有be/have/do/will/can/should。
“though”
•(2)For stylistic purposes, a post-verb adjective in an adverbial clause beginning with “though” may propose to the sentence initial position.
•Example:Though she was sick, the woman fought with the wolf and saved her children. /
•Sick though she was, the woman fought with the wolf and saved her children.
•由于文体的原因,以though开头的状语从句中位于动词后的形容词可以移到句首。
15. D-structure and S-structure
•深层结构和表层结构
•What syntactic movement suggests for the study of the grammar is that a sentence structure may have two levels of syntactic representation, one that exists before movement takes place, and the other that occurs after movement takes place.
•句法位移对语法研究的启示是,一个句子结构可以有两个层次的句法表现,一个存在于位移发生之前,一个存在于位移发生之后。
•In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representations are commonly termed as D-structure (the deep structure) and S-structure (the surface structure).
•在正规的语言学研究中,这两种句法表现称为深层结构和表层结构。
•It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure, while the application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from the level of D-structure to that of S-structure.
•短语结构规则通过插入词汇在深层结构上生成句子,而应用句法位移规则又把句子从深层结构转化到表层结构。
•Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.
•由于并非所有句子都能发生句法位移,因而一个句子的深层结构和表层结构在不同的表现层次上是完全相同的。
16. Move α – a general movement rule
• 移动α规则
•Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules, that is, the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move Alpha. Alpha is a Greek symbol used here to represent any constituent, and what Move Alpha says is “move any constituent to any place”.
•移动α规则是一条支配句法成分位移的普遍原则。如果X标杆理论规则将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合起来一样,该规则综合了所有的位移规则,可以解释所有语言中的一切位移现象。
•It is too powerful, so the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain the movement power of the rule and which will stimulate that only “certain constituents” can move to only “certain positions.”
•如果一个成分可以移到任意位置,那么就会又不合乎语法的句子出现。规则应该有一些条件来移位能力,使得只有“某些成分”可以移动到“某些位置”。
17.Theory of universal grammar
• 普遍语法理论
•Since early 1980s Noam Chomsky developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) know as the principle-an-parameters theory. UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles and also contains a set of parameters.
•从八十年代初期开始,乔姆斯基发展了一种普遍语法理论,称为原则与参数理论。普遍语法是一个语言知识体系,是人类特有的天赋,它存在于正常人的头脑中。普遍语法包含一组广义条件,或广义原则,还包含一种参数。
18. General principles of universal grammar
• 普遍语法的广义原则
a) Case Condition
•格条件原则.
•As is required by the Case Condition principle, a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned by verb or preposition to the object position, or by auxiliary to the subject position. The theory of Case Condition accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.
•格条件原则要求名词词组必须有格,宾语的格是由动词或介词决定的,而主语的格是由助动词决定的。格条件理论说明了为什么名词词组只在主语和宾语的位置上出现。
b) Adjacency Condition
•毗邻条件
•As is required by Adjacency Condition principle, a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. This condition explains why no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object.
•毗邻条件决定格分派,该条件要求格分派者和格接受者要相互毗邻。这一条件解释了为什么任何别的词组类型都不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。
19. The parameters of universal grammar
• 普遍语法的参数
•Parameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Set in one of the permissible ways, a parameter acquires a particular value, for example, a plus or minus value, which allows the grammar of a language to behave in a way very different from that of another language.
•参数是普遍语法中的句法选项,它使广义原则能以一种或另一种方式进行操作并造成了不同自然语言之间在语言上的显著不同。一个参数若以某种可允许的方式设置,它就可以得到某种意义,如加或减的意义,这就使一种语言的语法和另一种语言的语法有很大不同。
•a) UG is believed to contain a parameter wit the values (+ strict adjacency) and (- strict adjacency) set on the Adjacency Condition. With English-type languages, the Adjacency Parameter is set to the (+ strict adjacency) value, while for French-type languages, the parameter is set to the other.
•普遍语法被认为包含一个参数,这个参数的意义是设置在毗邻条件之上的(加严格毗邻)和(减严格毗邻)。英语属前者而法语属后者。
•b) Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, known as the Directionality Parameter. This parameter offers a neat and consistent account for the typological difference in the word order within the VP category between English and Japanese. In English, VP → V NP while in Japanese, VP → NP V.
•另一个参数与词序有关,它涉及格分派的方位,被称为方位参数。这一参数为英语和日语的动词词组的词序的类型差异提供了一个满意的、恰当的解释
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Chapter 5 Semantics语义学
1. What is semantics?
什么是语义学?
Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.
语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。
2. Some views concerning the study of meaning
1) The naming theory 命名论
2) The conceptualist view 意念论
3) Contextualism 语境论
4) Behaviorism 行为主义论
1) The naming theory
命名论
It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.
命名论是最原始的语义理论,是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。
2) The conceptualist view
意念论
The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
意念论认为,语言形式及其所代表的对象之间(即语言与现实世界之间)没有直接联系;确切地说,在理解语义时,是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。
3) Contextualism
语境论
Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.
语境论以这样的假设为基础:人们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。语境有两种:情景语境和语言语境。
语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境,语义不是抽象的,它存在于语境之中,它来自语境,取决于语境。
4) Behaviorism
行为主义论
Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.
语义的行为主义论和语义的语境论有相似之处,它也把语义放到语境中去研究,但它更注重人的心理活动,认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对听到话语的反应。
3. Sense and reference
意义和所指
They are two related but different aspects of meaning.
它们是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。
Sense
1) Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are interested in.
意义关心的是语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和,它是抽象且脱离语境的。它是词典编写者们所感兴趣的语义方面。
简单地说,意义是词汇内在的,抽象的,游离于语境之外的意义。
Reference
2) Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.
所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指称的东西;涉及语言成分和非语言的经验世界的关系。
简单地说,所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。
4. Major sense relations
主要意义关系
1) Synonymy 同义关系
1) Synonymy
同义关系
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。
a) Dialectal synonyms
b) Stylistic synonyms
c) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning
d) Collocational synonyms
e) Semantically different synonyms
a) Dialectal synonyms
方言同义词
synonyms used in different regional dialects.
用在不同地域方言中的同义词。
British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English language.
英国英语和美国英语是英语的两大地理变体。
British-E and American-E
英国英语 美国英语
Autumn fall
Lift elevator
Flat department
Windscreen windshield
Torch flashlight
b) Stylistic synonyms
文体同义词
synonyms differing in style.
- 在文体上有差异的同义词。
Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality. In other words, some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style.
有同样意义的词可能在文体上,或者在正式程度上有所不同。也就是说,有些往往比较正式,有些比较随意,有些在问题上则是中性的。
formal, casual, and neutral
Old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent
Start, begin, commence
Kid, child, offspring
c)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning
情感意义或评价意义有所不同的同义词。
There are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about.
有着相同的意义却表达了使用者的不同情感的词语,这些词暗示使用者对他所谈论的事情的态度或倾向。
Collaborator 合作者/ Accomplice 同谋者,帮凶
Like, love, admire, adore, worship
Economical, frugal, thrifty, mean, miserly, stingy
d)Collocational synonyms
搭配同义词
synonyms differing in their collocation.
同义词在其搭配上各不相同
Some synonyms differ in their collocation, i.e., in the words they go together with. This is a matter of usage.
即能和这些不同的同义词相配的词各不相同。
Accuse…of
charge…with
rebuke…for
e)Semantically different synonyms
语义上不同的同义词
–synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean.
- 同义词的意义非常接近,但却有细微差别。
Amaze 暗示困惑和迷惑
astound 暗示难以置信
Escape 意味逃离不愉快或者危险的事
flee 意味匆匆离开
2)Polysemy
多义关系
The same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.
同一个单词可能有一个以上的意义,这就是我们所说的一词多义,这样的词叫多义词。一个词越常用,它就越可能获得一个以上的意义。
Table 一词最初只有一个意义,很可能指一块石板或木板,这叫做其原始意义。后来它逐渐获得了它现在所指称的其它意义。
Homonymy
同音/同形异义关系
Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that word having different meaning have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
同形异义是指意义不同的词有着相同的语言形式的现象,即不同的词发音上或拼写上,或者两个方面都相同。
When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.
两个单词在发音上相同时,叫同音异义词。
rain/ reign; night/ knight; piece/ peace
When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.
两个单词在拼写上相同时,叫同形异义词。
bow v./ bow n.; tear v./ tear n.; lead v./ lead n.
When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.
两个单词在发音和拼写上都相同时,叫完全同形异义词。
fast adj./ fast v.; scale n./ scale v.
Hyponymy
上下义关系
Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general more inclusive word and a more specific word. 上下义关系是指一个具有一般性、包容性的词与一个更为具体的词之间的意义关系。
The word which is more general in meaning is called the super-ordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same super-ordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.
意义更具有一般性的词叫上义词,意义更为具体的词叫下义词。同一个上义词的多个下义词叫并列下义词。
上义词: flower
下义词: rose(玫瑰花), tulip(郁金香), carnation(康乃馨), lily(百合花), morning glory (牵牛花)
上义词: animal
下义词: dog, cat, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fax, bear
Antonymy
反义关系
The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning, words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.
反义关系用以指意义的相反。意义上相反的词叫反义词。
a) Gradable antonyms
分级反义词
Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. So it is a matter of degree.
一些反义词是级别上的对立,因为一对这样的反义词中间常有其它表示程度的词。意义相反实际上只是程度问题。
Old 和 young 是反义词,但它们代表两个极端,中间还存在着代表年老和年轻的不同程度的其它语言形式,如 middle-aged, mature, elderly.
b)Complementary antonyms
互补反义词
A pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.
互补反义词具有这样的特征,否定其中一个就意味着肯定另一个。也就是说,是一个非此即彼、非彼即此的问题。
Male/ female alive/dead
c) Relational opposites
关系反义词
Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.
在意义上现实出逆向关系的一对词语叫关系反义词。
Wife/ husband
father/ son
teacher/ pupil
doctor/ patient
buy/ sell
above/ below
5.Sense relations between sentences
句子间的意义关系
1) X is synonymous with Y.
X和Y 是同义关系
示例:
X: He is a bachelor all his life.
Y: He never married all his life.
如果X是真的,Y也是真的,如果X是假的,Y也是假的。
2) X is inconsistent with Y.
X和Y是前后矛盾关系
示例:
X: John is married.
Y: John is a bachelor.
如果X是真的,Y就是假的,如果X是假的,Y就是真的。
3)X entails Y
(Y is an entailment of X)
X蕴涵Y (Y是X的蕴涵)
示例:
X: John married a blond heiress (女继承人).
Y: John married a blond.
蕴涵是一种包含关系。如果X蕴涵Y,X的意义就为Y所包含。
4) X presupposes Y.
(Y is a prerequisite of X)
X预示Y (Y是X的先决条件)
示例:
X: John’s bike needs repairing.
Y: John has a bike.
5) X is a contradiction.
X是个矛盾句
示例:
X: My unmarried sister is married to bachelor.
X句子本身自相矛盾,它永远是假的。
6)X is semantically anomalous.
句子X在语义上反常
示例:
X: The table has bad intentions.
X 在语义上反常,它就是荒唐的。
6. Analysis of meaning
1) Componential analysis
– a way to analyze lexical meaning
语义成分分析法 - 一种词义分析法
The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters.
一个单词的意义可以分析为被称作语义特征的意义成分。用加减号来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在还是省缺,这些特征符号通常用大写字母来表示。
advantage of componential analysis
One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.
成分分析的一个好处是,通过列出某些单词的语义特征,就可能显示这些单词在意义上有什么联系。
Man 和 woman 这两个单词有 +HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE这些共同的特征,但在MALE这一特征上不同。
Man 和 boy这两个单词有 +HUMAN, +ANIMATE, +MALE这些共同的特征,但在ADULT这一特征上不同。
2) Predication analysis
– a way to analyze sentence meaning
述谓结构分析 - 一种句义分析法
Linguists have proposed different ways to analyze the meaning of sentences. They might differ in their framework of analysis, but they share the aim to abstract the meaning of sentences. What we are going to introduce briefly is the predication analysis proposed by the linguist G Leech.
语言学家们提出了不同的分析句子意义的方法。他们的分析基准体系可能有所不同,但他们的目标都是使句子意义抽象化。我们现在要介绍的是英国语言学家G里奇提出的述谓结构分析法。
In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, and it is analyzed into such grammatical components as subject, predicate, and attribute.
对句子进行语法分析时,句子被视为基本单位,它被分析谓诸如主谓语和定语这样的语法成分。
In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms.
对句子进行意义分析时,基本单位称为述谓,这是对句子意义的抽象化。这一方法适用于所有句式,包括陈述句、祈使句和疑问句。
A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.
An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.
A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments n a sentence.
一个述谓由一个或数个论元和一个谓词组成。
一个论元是一个述谓的一个逻辑参与者,与一个句子中的一个或数个名词性成分大体一致。
一个谓词是关于论元的陈述,或者说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系。
句子的语法形式不影响其语义述谓,下列所有句子具有同样的述谓:
Tom smokes.
Tom is smoking.
Tom has been smoking.
Tom, smoke!
Does Tom smoke?
这是同一语义述谓TOM(SMOKE)在语法上的多种体现。
According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we classify the predications into two-place predication (containing two arguments), one-place predication (containing one argument), and no-place predication (containing no argument).
根据一个述谓中所包含的论元的数目,我们把述谓结构分为两位述谓结构(包含两个论元)、单位述谓结构(包含一个论元)和零位述谓结构(没有论元)
The building is next to the library. (Two-place predication)
He is snoring. (One-place predication)
It is late. (No-place predication)
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Chapter 6 Pragmatic语用学
1. What is pragmatics?
•Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
•语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。
•As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used.
•由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程,因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。
2. Pragmatics and semantics
• 语用学和语义学
•Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.
3. Context
•语境
•Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
•语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。
•The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.
•共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识,包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。
4. Sentence meaning and utterance meaning
• 句子意义和话语意义
•The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
•句子的意义是抽象的,非语境化的,而话语的意义是具体的,受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义;它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现,或简而言之,在一个语境中的具体化。
5. Speech act theory
• 言语行为理论
•Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century.
•言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。
•According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
•根据言语行为理论,我们说话的同时是在实施某种行为。
•According to speech act theory, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.
•根据言语行为理论,说话者说话时可能同时实施三种行为:言内行为,言外行为和言后行为。
•a) A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax lexicon and phonology.
•言内行为是说出词、短语和分句的行为, 它是通过句法、词汇和音位来表达字面意义的行为。
•b) An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.
•言外行为是表达说话者的意图的行为,它是在说某些话时所实施的行为。
•c) A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
•言后行为是通过某些话所实施的行为,或讲某些话所导致的行为,它是话语所产生的后果或所引起的变化,它是通过讲某些话所完成的行为。
•American philosopher-linguist John Searle classified illocutionary acts into five general types. Each type has a common, general purpose.
•美国的哲学语言学家约翰.舍尔把言外行为分为五类,每一类行为都有一个共同的、普遍的目的。
•a) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true
•阐述类:陈述或描述说话者认为是真实的情况
•示例:
•I have never seen the man before. / the earth is globe.
•b) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something
•指令类:试图使听话者做某些事情
•示例:
•Open the window! / Would you like to go to the picnic with us?
•c) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action
•承诺类:说话者自己承诺未来要有一些行为。
•示例:
•I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.
•d) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state
•表达类:表达对某一现状的感情和态度。
•示例:
•I’m sorry for the mess I have made. / It’s really kind of you to have thought of me.
•e) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something
•宣告类:通过说话引起骤变。
•示例:
•I now declare the meeting open. / I fire you.
Important remark:
•All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same illocutionary point, but they differ in their strength or forth.
•每一类中的行为都有同样的目的,但具有同样目的的言外行为可能具有不同程度的言外之力。
6. Principle of conversation
• 会话原则
•American philosopher Paul Grice concluded that natural language had its own logic. His idea is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle (CP).
•美国哲学家保罗.格赖斯提出的会话原则旨在解释会话意义。他提出自然语言有其独特的逻辑关系。他认为会话的最高原则是合作,称为合作原则。
•To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:
•在最高原则,即合作原则下,人们在交际中要遵守如下四个准则:
•
•a) The maxim of quantity 数量准则
•
• Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange).
•使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。
•Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
•不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。
•b) The maxim of quality 质量准则
•
•Do not say what you believe to be false. 不要说自己认为不真实的话。
•Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。
•c) The maxim of relation 关联准则
•
•Be relevant. 说话要贴切,有关联
•d) The maxim of manner 方式准则
•
•Avoid obscurity of expression. 避免晦涩的词语。
•Avoid ambiguity. 避免歧义。
•Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). 说话要简要(避免累赘)。
•Be orderly. 说话要有条理。
•It is interesting and important to note that while conversation participants nearly always observe the CP, they do not always observe these maxims strictly. For various reasons these maxims are often violated, or “flouted”. Most of these violations give rise to what Grice calls “conversational implicature”. In other word, when we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect.
•虽然会话参与者几乎总是遵守合作原则的,但并非严格遵守。由于种种原因,这些原则经常被违反,尔对合作原则的违反则导致产生格赖斯所说的“会话含意”。也就是说,对任何一种合作原则的违反,都会使语言变得间接。
•示例1:
•Do you know where Mr. X lives?
•Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.
•违反数量准则
•示例2:
•Would you like to come to our party tonight?
•I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.
•违反质量准则
•示例3:
•The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?
•The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?
•违反关联准则
•示例4:
•Shall we get something for the kids?
•Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
•违反方式准则
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Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学
•1. The purpose and significance of the historical study of language
•The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence.
•研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。
•Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages. ['kinʃip]
•历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系,为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。
•The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change. ([‘trigə] v. 使发生, 触发, 使运行)
•历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素,如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。
2. The nature of language change
•语言变化的本质
•All living languages change with time. Unless a language is no longer spoken by the general public of a society, such as Latin, its change is inevitable. As a general rule, language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. Language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar.
•所有尚在使用的语言都随着时间的变化而变化。语言的变化是不可避免的。语言变化是普遍的、连续的,在一定程度上也是规则的和系统的。语言变化涉及语法系统的各大组成部分。在语言演变过程中,词汇和语法规则有的消亡了,有的诞生了,有的是外借的,有的则转化了其意义或功能。
•Although language change is universal, inevitable, and in some cases, vigorous, it is never an overnight occurrence.
•Language development may be regarded as linguistic evolution from one stage to another.
•尽管语言变化是普遍的,必然的,有时甚至是显著的,但语言的变化是一个缓慢的渐变过程,其变化是同代人所不易察觉的。
•语言的发展可以看作是语言从一个阶段到另一个阶段的演化过程。
3. Major periods in the history of English
•英语历史发展的主要阶段
•a) Old English (450-1100) 古英语阶段
•b) Middle English (1100-1500) 中古英语阶段
•c) Modern English (1500-今) 现代英语阶段
•Most Modern English speakers find Middle English only partially comprehensible, and Old English simply unintelligible, just like a foreign language hardly recognizable as the native language they speak.
•大多数现代英语的使用者发现,对于他们来说,中古英语只能部分地被理解,古英语则如外语一般,简直不可理解。
•Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles from northern Europe.
•古英语源自欧洲的盎格鲁撒克逊民族所操的语言。
•Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England. Middle English had been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar.
•中古英语深受诺曼底占领者所操的法语的影响。词汇和语法等均受其影响。
•Modern English is separated with Middle English with European renaissance movement.
•现代英语是英语自身发展和欧洲文艺复兴运动渗透结合的产物,很多词汇是外来语。
•As British influence reached other continents, the “British Empire” established English-speaking colonies in many parts of the world. English is now the native language in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
•英帝国的兴起及其移民化过程的成功使现代英语的使用遍布全球。以现代英语为母语的国家包括英国、美国、加拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰等。
4. Linguistic change in English
•Language change is essentially a matter of change in the grammar. We refer to the change in the grammar of a language as linguistic change. Linguistic change occurs in all components of the grammar, including changes in the sound, morphological, syntactic, lexical and semantic systems.
•语言变化实质上是语法变化。我们把一种语言的语法变化称为语言变化。语言变化包括语音系统、形态系统、句法系统、词汇系统和语义系统等部分的变化。
a) sound change 语音变化
•l Vowel sound change 元音变化
•l Sound loss 语音消失
•l Sound addition 语音增加
•l Sound movement 语音移位
l Vowel sound change
元音变化
•The change occurred at the end of the Middle English period, approximately 1400-1600. These changes led to one of the major discrepancies between the phonemic representations of words and morphemes, that is, between the pronunciation and the spelling system of Modern English. Known as the Great Vowel Shift in the history of English, these changes involve seven long, or tense, vowels. Refer to P132 of the test book for examples.
•元音变化出现在中古英语后期,大约在1400到1600年之间。这些变化使一些单词的音位表达和词素之间出现了很大的不一致。这些变化在英语史上被称为元音大变位,涉及七个长元音,或紧元音。实例见书本132页。
l Sound loss 语音消失
•Not only did types of vowel sounds change, but some sounds simply disappeared from the general pronunciation of English.
•不仅数种元音发生了变化,而且一些语音还从英语的整个发音体系中消失了。
•1》 古英语中/x/ 在现代英语中已不存在。
•如:古英语nicht (night) 读做/nixt/,而现代英语读做/nait/
•2》 古英语和中古英语中有/kn/,都发音,在现代英语中/k/不发音了。
•如:knight/knee 在古英语中字母k是发音的,而在现代英语中不发音
•3》 古英语中有一类名词的复数形式不是在词尾加/s/音,而是加/i/这个音,现在没有了。
•如:goose的复数形式在古英语中的发音是/go:si/
•4》 现代英语中出现了位于词尾的元音音段的省略现象,称为词尾音脱落。
•如:name/love在古英语中发音为/na:ma:/和/lufu/,在中古英语中发音为/na:mə/和/luvə/,而在现代英语中的发音为/neim/和/lΛv/
•5》 词尾音脱落还影响了某些词的拼写。
•如:古英语单词helpe随着词尾音的消失,在中古英语和现代英语中拼写成了help
l Sound addition 语音增加
•While some sounds were lost in the course of the historical development of English, other sounds were added. Sound addition includes the gain or insertion of a sound. A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis. Refer to P134 of the text book for examples.
•英语在发展过程中消失了一些语音,但也增加了一些语音。语音增加包括增加一个音或嵌入一个音。在一个词的中间嵌入一个辅音或元音被称为插入音。实例见书本134页。
l Sound movement 语音移位
•Sound change as a result of sound movement, known as metathesis, involves a reversal in position of two adjoining sound segments.
•语音移动所导致的语音变化被称为语音变位,它涉及两个相邻音段互换位置。
example
•古英语中bridd/hros 在现代英语中变成了bird/horse
b) Morphological change
形态变化
•l Affix loss 词缀消失
•l Affix addition 词缀增加
•
l Affix loss 词缀消失
•消失了的词缀包括:
•-baere(形容词派生词缀)
•-bora(相应动作的施为者)
•-yan(加在形容词后称为使役动词)
•注:现代英语中的-en不再具有产出性技能,因而我们不能派生出诸如以下的一些单词
• Green-en / blue-en / asleep-en
l Affix addition 词缀增加
•增加了的词缀包括:
•-able(动词转化为形容词的词缀)
•-ment(动词转化为名词的词缀)
•-ze (名词或形容词转化为动词的词缀)
c) Syntactic change
句法变化
•l Rule loss 规则消失
•l Rule addition 规则增加
•l Rule change 规则变化
l Rule loss
规则消失
•消失的规则包括:
•1》Morphosyntactic rule of adjective agreement. The rule stipulated that the endings of adjectives must agree with the head noun in case, number, and gender.
•形容词一致的形态句法规则。规则要求形容词词尾在格、数、性等方面必须与中心词保持一致。
•2》Old English syntax contained a double-negation rule, which would negate a sentence with both negators of “ne” (“not”) and “nǽfre”(“never”).
•古英语中还有一个双重否定规则,即用两个否定词来否定一个句子。
l Rule addition 规则增加
•1》Particle movement rule. 小品词移位规则。
•实例:
•John threw out the ball through the window. 其中throw out 中的小品词out 可以移位
•John threw the ball out through the window.
•2》Another syntactic rule gain in English concerns the distinction between auxiliary verbs and main verbs. In modern English the syntactic behavior of auxiliary verbs differs from that of main verbs in that only auxiliary verbs can be fronted in interrogative sentences.
•英语中增加的另一条句法规则涉及助动词和主要动词之间的区分。在现代英语中, 助动词和主要动词的句法表现的主要区别在于,只有助动词在疑问句中能被提前。
l Rule change 规则变化
•1》A negative sentence could be formed by merely adding “not’ at the end of an affirmative sentence prior to Shakespeare’s time.
•在莎士比亚时代之前,英语仅在一个肯定句的句尾加not就可以使它变为否定句。
•2》Languages vary in the order of the subject, the verb and the object.
•不同语言的主语、谓语动词和宾语的顺序是不同的。现代英语基本都是主谓宾结构。
d) Lexical change
词汇变化
•l Lexical loss 词汇消失
•l Lexical addition 词汇增加
l Lexical loss 词汇消失
•实例见书本141页。
l Lexical addition 词汇增加
•The history of English lexical expansion is one that is characterized with heavy borrowing and word formation.
•英语词汇增加的历史特点是大量地借用外来词和通过构词法构成新词。
•Although English has borrowed most heavily from French, other languages as Latin and Greek have also made their contributions.
•虽然英语从法语中借来的词数目最多,其它语言,如拉丁语和希腊语也做出了贡献。
•In addition to borrowing, new words have made their entry into English via word formation rules such as compounding, derivation, acronym formation, blending, abbreviation, clipping, back-formation, and coinage.
•除了借用外,英语还通过复合法、派生法、词首字缩略法、混合法、缩写法、逆向构词法和创新词法等构词规则参数新词。以上方法的实例详见书本144和145页。
e) Semantic change 语义变化
•l Semantic broadening 语义扩大化
•l Semantic narrowing 语义狭义化
•l Semantic shift 语义演变
l Semantic broadening
语义扩大化
•实例见书本146页。包括bird/dog/aunt/holiday这些词。
l Semantic narrowing
语义狭义化
•实例见书本146和147页。包括hound/meat/wife/girl/liquor/fowl/disease这些词。
l Semantic shift 语义演变
•实例见书本147和148页。包括silly/fond/nice/immoral这些词。
5. Language Family 语系
•Language family is a group of historically (or genetically) related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language. For example, most of the languages of Europe, Persia, and the north part of India belong to the Indo-European language family, and they have the same origin known as Proto-Indo-European.
•语系是一组从同一古代语言发展而来的具有历史联系(或者说是亲缘关系)的语言集合。例如:绝大多数的欧洲语言、波斯语、印度北部地区的语言都属于印欧语系,它们都源自一种叫做原始印欧语的语言。
6. Classifying genetically related languages
•It is estimated that over five thousand languages are spoken in the world today. There are about 30 language families with four main ones: the Indo-European Family, the Sino-Tibetan Family, the Austronesian Family, and the Afroasiatic Family.
•世界上大概有五千多中语言,30个语系,其中最重要的4个语系是:印欧语系、汉藏语言、澳斯特罗尼亚语系和非亚语系。
•The Indo-European family has a membership of about 150 languages. The Sino-Tibetan family consists of about 300 East Asian languages. The Austronesian Family comprises up to 1000 different languages scattered over one third of the Southern Hemisphere. The Afroasiatic Family is made up of about 250 languages spread across the northern part of Africa and western Asia. English is belonged to the Indo-European Family.
•印欧语系有150中语言,包括欧洲的大部分语言和印度次的语言。汉藏语系包括300多种东亚语言。澳斯特罗尼亚语系包括多达1000种语言,它们散布在南半球的三分之一以上的区域。非亚语系由大约250种语言组成,分布在非洲北部和西亚地区。英语属于印欧语系。
•Many seemingly different languages are actually genetically related as sisters or cousins of a big language family and have developed from a common, possibly “dead”, ancestral language. Historical linguists have to identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree, and to reconstruct the protolanguage.
•很多看似不同的语言实际上存在亲密的亲缘关系,它们可能来源于同一种可能已经消失拉丁古代语言。历史语言学家们通过对各语系中相关语言进行甄别,勾画出家族谱系图,从而重新构建语系的原始语。
•A language family is established by the use of a method known as comparative reconstruction. By identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages,historical linguists reconstruct the proto form in the common ancestral language.
•历史语言学家们采用比较重建法甄别语言,重建语系的原始语。
•Work on the systematic form-meaning resemblance in cognates, words that have descended from a common source, lies at the core of comparative reconstruction.
•研究同源词-从同一来源发展而来的词-的形式和意义的系统的相似性,是比较重建的核心任务。
7. The Indo-European language family
•The Indo-European language family is the first and most widely investigated language family of the world. The discovery of Indo-European began with the work of British scholar Sir William Jones. In 1822, the German scholar Jacob Grimm specified in his treatise the regular sound correspondences among Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and the Germanic languages. Grimm’s major contribution to historical linguistics is his explanation of the relationships among cognates in terms of a sound shift, the systematic modification of a series of phonemes. Because these sound changes were so strikingly regular and law-like, they became collectively as Grimm’s Law.
•在世界上的各语系中,印欧语系是研究最早和最深的一种语系。首次致力于印欧语系的发现工作的人是英国学者威廉.琼斯爵士。1822年,德国学者雅各布.格里姆在他的论著中详细说明了梵语、拉丁语和日尔曼语之间有规则的语音对应。格里姆对历史语言学的主要贡献是,他从音变-一系列音位有系统的变异-的角度解释了同源词之间的关系。因为这些语音变化的规则如此显著,象定律一般,所以这些变化统称格林定律。
8. The causes of language change 语音变化的原因
•a) Sound assimilation 语音的同化
•b) Rule simplification and regularization 规则的简化与统一
•c) Internal borrowing 内部借用
•d) Elaboration 规则的细化
•e) Sociological triggers 社会因素
•f) Cultural transmission 文化传播
a) Sound assimilation
语音的同化
•Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. Assimilation processes are phonological changes due to physiological mechanisms.
•语音同化是指一个语音对另一个语音的生理影响。同化过程是由于生理机制而发生的语音变化。
•In an assimilative process, successive sound is made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology- the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.
•语音同化过程使一个音受其毗邻的音的影响而发生音变,使其发音变得与其毗邻的音相近。
•Another example of sound assimilation involves vowel nasalization.
•Another example of sound assimilation that results in morpho-logical and lexical changes is the /k/ sound as in the word “key”.
•语音同化的结果可以导致元音或辅音的丢失,可以导致元音的鼻音化,也可以导致语音形态的变化。
b) Rule simplification and regularization 规则的简化与统一
•Rule simplification and regularization involves exceptional plural forms of nouns.
•规则的简化与统一的一个例子是英语中名词复数形式。本来有规则形态变化和不规则形态变化,在英语演化过程中,由于不规则形态趋于规则化,所以复数形式趋向简化。
c) Internal borrowing 内部借用
•Another kind of change that is motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.
•引起语言变化的又一个原因是旨在减轻记忆负担的语言规则的内部借用现象。例如,英语动词的过去式不规则变化形式繁多,随着时间的推移,借用-ed这一规则变化形式在当代英语中越来越普遍。
d) Elaboration 规则的细化
•Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness. Language seems to maintain a balance in expressiveness and grammatical elaboration over time. If a particular grammatical feature is lost as a result of, say, a change in the phonological system, some other feature may be added in another component of the grammar, such as in the syntax.
•人们在使用语言时,为了避免模棱两可、含糊不清的词句,或为了提高语言表达上的准确性,往往需要增加一些规则,致使句法规则更加细化,如词序规则的严格化、功能词使用的频度等。
e) Sociological triggers
社会因素
•Linguistics have become increasingly aware of sociological triggers for language change. Radical socio-political changes such as wars, invasions, occupation, colonialization, and language planning and standardization policies lead to vigorous language changes.
•促使语言变化的原因不仅有语言内部的,更多的是来自语言系统外部的社会环境的变化,如侵略战争、殖民化、推行的语言规划或标准化运动等。
f) Cultural transmission
文化传播
•Although a new generation has to find a way of using the language of the previous generation, it has to find expressions that can best communicate the views and concepts of the time and the changed and ever-changing social life, and re-create the languages of the community. Many young speakers have the desire to sound different from the older generation.
•语言变化的原因还在于,层出不穷的新概念和新事物需要人们用新的词语去表达。变化了或变化着的生活、社会、观念、思维方式等需要人们更新表达方式。尤其是新的一代,在语言的表达上喜欢标新立异。
g) Children’s approximation toward the adult grammar
•儿童语法接近成年人语法
•Children acquire their native language not through formal instruction of grammatical rules. Children usually construct their personal grammars by themselves and generalize rules fro the linguistic information they hear. They are exposed to diverse linguistic information. Children have a strong desire to simplify and regularize grammatical rules, particularly when they see adults use certain rules optionally. In such cases, a change in the grammar occurs.
•儿童在习得母语时接收到了各种语言信息和表达习惯,其中有的繁琐复杂,有的简明扼要。儿童往往偏向于习得简化了的或者规则化了的表达方式,因此代代相传的语言其演化自然也就呈现出简化或规则化的趋势。
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Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics
社会语言学
1. What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学?
•Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.
•社会语言学是语言学的一个分支,它研究社会环境中的语言。
2. Language variation 语言变异
•a) Speech community 言语社区
•b) Speech variety 言语变体
•c) Regional variation 地域变异
•d) Social variation 社会变异
•e) Stylistic variation 文体变异
•f) Idiolectal variation 个人言语变异
a) Speech community 言语社区
•In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language.
•社会语言学研究中,说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。分离出来用于任何特定研究的社会群体称作言语社区。因而,言语社区就被定义为一个社区(人数小到一个家庭,大到一个国家)使用同样的语言或语言的某种变体的一群人。
•The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.
•言语社区的重要特点是,这个群体的成员必须以某种适当的方式与其他的社区成员进行语言交流。这些成员不仅可能对语言规范持相同态度,而且可能使用紧密联系的语言变体。
•言语社区的范畴可以是地域性的,也可以是跨地区的。社会地位、经济地位、受教育程度、兴趣爱好、职业、年龄等因素相同的人所使用的语言往往带有相同言语社区的烙印。
b) Speech variety 言语变体
•Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. A speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.
•在社会环境中使用的语言都属于某种言语变体。一种言语变体具有一些与其它言语变体不同的特征。这些特征反映在发音、句法规则、词汇上。
• Considered a more neutral term, speech variety is sometimes used instead of standard language, vernacular language, dialect, pidgin, creole, etc. Speech variation moves on a scale of the national language, dialect, and individual ways of communication.
•言语变体可以指一种不同的语言,如标准语、方言、洋泾浜等,可以指同一语言的地域性或民族性变体,如英语中的澳大利亚英语、黑人英语等,也可以指同属一种语言的功能性言语变体,如法律语体、正式语体等。
•Sociolinguists are particularly interested in there types of speech variety, or dialects, namely, regional dialects, sociolects or social dialects, and functional speech varieties known as registers.
•The term dialect, as a technical term in linguistics, carries no value judgment and simply refers to a distinct form of language.
•言语变体无论其具有何种社会属性,在社会语言学家看来它们之间没有高低之分、优劣之分。
c) Regional variation 地域变异
•Regional variation is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from. Regional variation of language is the most discernible and definable.
•语言的地域变异产生了地区方言。语言往往随着使用地理位置的变化而变化。地域变异是语言最易辨别的特征。
accent
•The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its accent. Often speakers of the same language but of different regional dialects of the language have a very difficult time communicating. One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning.
•语言地域变异的最显著特征是地域口音。由于口音差异给跨地区的交流造成理解上的困难,推广标准化的运动便应运而生。
d) Social variation 社会变异
•Social variation gives rise to sociolects which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories which reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational and ethnic background, as well as their sex and age.
•语言的社会变异产生了社会方言。社会方言又可以分为更小的语言类别。导致语言社会变异的主要因素包括语言使用者的不同的社会地位、经济地位、学历、职业、年龄、性别等。
e) Stylistic variation 文体变异
•There are differences associated with the speech situation: who is speaking to whom about under what circumstances for what purpose.
•有一些差异是说话者本人的言语在不同的言语情景中所具有的差异:言语情景即在什么情况下,为了什么目的,谁与谁讲什么。
•Stylistic variation in a person’s speech, or writing, usually ranges on continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation. Style can also refer to a particular person’s use of speech or writing at all times, or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time, e.g., Dickens’ style, Hemingway’s style.
•根据交际情景的类型,一个人的口头语和书面语的文体会发生变化,变异区间是从随便文体或口语体到正式文体或文雅文体。文体风格也可以指一个人一直在使用的口头语或书面语,或指在一个特定的时期内的说话或写作方式,如狄更斯的风格、海明威的风格。
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f) Idiolectal variation
个人言语变异
•When an individual speaks, what is actually produced is a unique language system of the speaker, expressed within the overall system of a particular language. Such a personal dialect is referred to as idiolect.
•一个人在说话时,他在一种特定语言的总的体系内表达,但他实际上所说出的是他自己的独特的语言体系。这种个人方言被称为个人习语。
•Idiolect is, thus, a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another. In a narrower sense, what makes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality, pitch and speech rhythm, which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual’s speech.
•因此,个人习语是说话者的个人方言,它以这样或那样的方式综合了涉及地域变异、社会变异和文体变异的各方面的特征。从比较狭窄的意义上来说,个人方言也包括音质、音调、言语节奏这样的因素。这些因素都构成了个人言语中的可识别特征。
3. Standard and nonstandard language
•The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.
•标准语是一种享有最高社会地位的语言变体,通常以在一个国家的政治、文化中心地区受过教育的本族语的口语和书面语为基础。标准语为和司法部门采用,也用于新闻媒介、文学作品、正式的讲话或写作、正规教育以及对非本族语者的外语教育。
•The standard language of many countries is also designated as the national or official language.
•许多国家的标准语同时被指定为全国语或官方语。
•Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.
•不同于标准语的变体叫做非标准语,其发音、语法和词汇明显有别于公认的标准。
•All dialects of a language are equally effective in expressing ideas.
•标准语和非标准语无优劣之分。
4. Diglossia and bilingualism 双言与双语现象
•a) Diglossia 双言现象
•b) Bilingualism 双语现象
a) Diglossia 双言现象
•Diglossia describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.
•双言现象并存于同一语言社区、用途各不相同的语言变体
•Usually, one is more standard variety called the high variety, or H-variety, which is used for more formal or serious matter, such as speeches made in government, the media, school, or church. And the other is a non-prestige variety called the low variety, or L-variety, which is used in colloquial and other informal situations, such as conversations with family or friends, or instructions given to servants, waiters, or workmen.
•通常其中一种被视为高层次变体,具有文言文的特征,另一种则为口语式的低层次变体。高层次变体用于正式场合和书面语,低层次变体用于口头交谈。高层次变体多用于机关、大众传媒、教育部门、宗教团体等。低层次变体常见于家庭成员或朋友之间的交谈,也被高身份者用以对低身份者发布指示等。
•Often the high variety is regarded as a literary standard called a classical language, whereas the low variety remains a local vernacular.
•高级变体一般作为书面语体而存在,低级变体则流行在区域性的方言中。
b) Bilingualism 双语现象
•Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers. A typical example of a bilingual community is an ethnic ghetto where most, if not all, of its inhabitants are either immigrants or children of immigrants.
•双语现象指个人或社区群体可以同时使用两种标准语言的现象。双语现在在移民群体中(尤其是第二代移民中)较为普遍。
Bilingualism
•Bilingualism also occurs to countries which have designated two official languages for nation or regional use. Perfect bilingualism, however is uncommon.
•A bilingual speaker often uses two languages alternatively during a conversation with another bilingual speaker.
•双语现象也出现在一些指定了两种官方语的国家。然而理想的双语现象是不常见的。双语者通常具有可以在两种语言之间自由切换、交替使用的能力。
