(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)
原文:
A Bridge For All Centuries
An extremely long-and record setting-main span was designed for the second bridge to across the Panama Canal in order to meet the owner’s requirement that no piers be placed in the water.Because no disruption of canal traffic was permitted at any time,the cable-stayed bridge of cast-in-place cancrete was carefully constructed using the balanced-cantilever method.
In 1962 ,the Bridge of Americas(Puente de las America) opened to traffic,serving as the only fixed link across the Panama Canal .The bridge was designed to carry 60,000 vehicles per day on four lanes, but it has beenoperating above its capacity for many years.Toalleviate bottlenecks on the route that the bridge carries over the canal-the Pan-American Highway(Inter-American Highway)-and promotegrowth on the western side of Panama,the country’s Ministry of Public Works(Ministerio de Obras Publicas,or MOP )decided to build a new highway systerm linking the northern part of Panama City,on the eastern side of the canal, to the town of Arraijan,located on the western side of the canal.The Centennial Bridge –named to commemorate 100 years of Panamanian independence-has noe been constructed and, when opend, will carry six lanes of traffic. This cable-stayed bridge of cast-in-place cancrete features a main span of 420m,the longest such span for this type of bridge in the Western Hemisphere.
In 200 the MOP invited international bridge design firms to compete for the design of the crossing, requesting a two-package proposal:one techinical, the other financial. A total of eight proposals were received by December 2000 from established bridge design firms all over the world. After short-listing three firms on the basis of the technical merits of their proposals, the MOP selected T.Y.Lin International, of San Francisco, to prepare the bridge design and provide field construction support based on the firm’s financial package.
The Centennial Bridge desige process was unique and aggressive,incorporating concepts from the traditional design/build/bid method, the design/build method , and the sa-called fast-track design process.To complete the construction on time-that is ,within just 27 months-the design of the bridge was carried out to a level of 30 percent before construction bidding began, in December 2001.The selected contractor-the Wiesbaden,Germany,office of Bilfinger Berger,AG-was brought on board immediately after being selected by the MOP ,just as would be the case in a fast-track approach. The desige of the bridge was then completed in conjunction with construction , a process that id similan to desige/build.
The design selected by the client features two single-mast towers,each supporting two sets of stay cables that align in one vertical plane.Concrete was used to construct both the towers and the box girder deck,as well as the approach structures.
The MOP , in conjunction with the Panama Canal Authority,established the following requirements for the bridge design :
A 420m,the minimum length for the main span to accommodate the recently widened Gaillard Cut,a narrow portion of the canal crossing the Continental Divide that was straightened and widened to 275m in 2002;
A navigational envelope consisting of 80m of vertical clearance and 70m of horizontal clearance to accommodate the safe passage of a crane of World War 11 vintage-a gift from the U.S.government that is used by the Panama Canal Authority to maintain the canal gates and facilities;
A roadway wide enough to carry six lanes of traffic, three in each direction;
A deck able to accommodate a 1.5m wide pedestrian walkway;
A design that would adhere to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Official standard for a 100-year service life and offer HS-25 truck loading;
A structure that could carry two 0.6m dianeter water lines;
A construction method that would not cross the canal at any time or interrupt canal operationa in any way.
Because of the bridge’s long main span and the potential for strong seismic activity in the area,no single building code covered all aspects of the project.Therefore the team from T.Y. Lin International determinded which portions of several standard bridge specifications were applicable and which were not.The following design codes were used in developing the design criteria for the bridge,it is standard specifications for highway bridge ,16th ed,1996
It was paramount that the towers of the cable-stayed structucture be erected on land to avoid potential ship collision and the need to construct expensive deep foundation in water. However, geological maps and boring logs produced during the preliminary design phrase revealed that the east and west banks of the canal, where the towers were to be located, featured vastly different geologicaland soil conditions. On the east side of the canal, beneath shallow layers of overburden that rangs in consistency from soft to hard, lies a block of basalt ranging from medium hard to hard with very closely spaced joint.The engineers determined that the basalt would provide a competent platform for the construction of shallow foundation for tower, piers, and approach structures on this side of bridge.The west side, however,featured the infamous Cucaracha Formation, which is a heterogeneous conglomerate of clay shale with inclusions of sandstone, basalt,and ash that is prone to landslide. As a sudsurface stratum the Cucaracha Formation is quite stable,but it quickly erodes when exposed to the elements. The engineers determined that deep foundations would therefore be needed for the western approach structure,the west tower,and the western piers.
Before a detailed design of the foundationa could be developed,a thorough analysis of the seismic hazards at the site was required,The design seismic load for the project was developed on the basis of a probabilistic seismic hazard assessment that considered the conditions at the site.Such an assessment establishes the return period for a given earthquake and the corresponding intensity of ground shaking in the horizontal directtion in terms of an acceleration response spectrum.The PSHA determined two dominant seismic sources: a subduction source zone associated with the North Panama Deformed Belt capable of producing a seimic event as strong as 7.7MW,and the Rio Gatun Fault, capable of producing an event as strong as 6.5MW.
The 7.7MW NPDB event was used as the safety evluation earthquake,that is,the maximum earthquake that could strike without putting the bridge out of service.The damage to the bridge would be minor but would require some closures of the bridge.The 6.5MWRio Gatun Fault event was used as the foundational evaluation earthquake,a lower-level temblor that would cause minimal damage to the bridge and would not require closures.For the FEE load case,the SEE loading was scaled back by two-thirds.The FEE is assumed to have a peak acceleration of 0.21g and a return period of 500 years; the probability that it will be exceeded within 50 years is 10 pencent and within 100 years,18 persent.The SEE is assumed to have a peak acceleration of 1.33g and a return period of 2,500 years;the probability that it will be exceeded within 50 years is 2 pencent and within 100 years,4 persent.
Because of uncertainty about the direction from which the seismic waves would approach the site, a single response spectrum-a curve showing the mathematically computed maximum response of a set of simple damped harmonic oscillators of different natural frequencies to a particular earthquake ground acceleration-was used to characterize mitions in two mutually orthogonal directions in the horizontal plane.To conduct a time-history analysis of the bridge’s multiple supports,a set of synthetic motions with three components-longitudinal,transverse,and vertical-was developd using an iterative technique.Recorded ground motions from an earthquake in Chile in 1985 were used as “seed”motions for the sythesis process.
A time delay estimate-that is,an estimate of the time it would take for the motions generated by the SEEand FEE earthquakes to travel from one point to the next-was create using the assumed seismic wave velocity and the distance between the piers of the bridge.Using an assumed was velocity of approximately 2.5km/s,a delay on the order of half a second to a second is appropriate for a bridge 1 to 2km long.
Soil-foundation interaction studies were performed to determine the stiffness of the soil and foundation as well as the seismic excitation measurement that would be used in the dynamic analyses.The studieswere conducted by means of soil-pile models using linear and nonlinear soil layera of varying depths.The equivalent pile lengths in the studies-that is, the lengths representing the portions of a given pile that would actually be affected by a given earthquake-induced ground motion-ranged from2to10m.In such a three-dimensional model,there are six ways in which the soil can resist the movement of the lpile because of its stiffness:throngh axial force in the three directions and through bending moments in three directions.Because the bridge site contains so many layers of varying soil types,each layer had to be represented by a different stiffness matrix and then analyzed.
Once the above analyses were completed,the T.Y.Lin International engineers-taking into consideration the project requirements developedby the owener-evaluated several different concrete cable-stayed designs.A number of structural systems were investigated,the main variables,superstructure cross sections,and the varying support conditions described above.
The requirement that the evevation of the deck be quite high strongly influenced the tower configuration.For the proposed deck elevation of more than 80m,the most economical tower shapes included single-and dual-mast towers as well as “goal post”towers-that is,a design in which the two masts would be linked to each other by crossbeams.
Ultimately the engineers designd the bridge to be 34.3m wide with a 420mlong cable-stayd main span,two 200mlong side spans-one on each side of the main span-and approach structures at the ends of the side spans.On the east side there is one 46m long concrete approach structure,while on the west side there are three,measuring 60,60,and 66m,for a total bridge length of 1,052m.The side spans are supported by four piers,referred to,from west to east,as P1.P2,P3,and P4.
The bridge deck is a continuous single-cell box girder from abutment to abutment; the expansion joints are located at the abutments only. Deck movements on the order of 400 mm are expected at these modular expansion joints Multidirectional pot bearings are used at the piers and at the abutments to accommodate these movements.
The deck was fixed to the two towers to facilitate the balanced-cantilever method of construction and to provide torsional rigidity and lateral restraint to the deck.. Transverse live loads, seismic loads, and wind loads are proportionally distributed to the towers and the piers by the fixity of the deck to the towers and by reinforced-concrete shear keys located at the top of P1, P3, and P4. The deck is allowed to move longitudinally over the abutments and piers. The longitudinal, seismic, live, and temperature loads are absorbed by what is known as portal frame structural behavior, whereby the towers and the deck form a portal-much like the frame of a door in a building-that acts in proportion to the relative stiffness of the two towers.
As previously mentioned, the presence of competent basalt on the east side of the site meant that shallow foundations could be used there; in particular, spread footings were designed for the east tower, the east approach structure, and the east abutment. The west tower, the west approach structure, and the western piers (P2 and P3), however, had to be founded deep within the Cucaracha Formation. A total of 48 cast-in-drilled-hole (CIDH) shafts with 2 m outer diameters and lengths ranging from 25 to 35 m were required. A moment curvature analysis was performed to determine the capacity of the shafts with different amounts of longitudinal steel rebar. The results were plotted against the demands, and on the basis of the results the amount of required longitudinal reinforcing steel was determined to be 1 percent of the amount of concrete used in the shafts. The distribution of the longitudinal reinforcing steel was established by following code requirements, with consideration also given to the limitations of constructing CIDH piles with the contractor’s preferred method, which is the water or slurry displacement method.
A minimum amount of transverse steel had to be determined for use in the plastic regions of the shaft-that is, those at the top one-eighth of eighth of each shaft and within the shaft caps, which would absorb the highest seismic demands. Once this amount was determined, it was used as the minimum for areas of the shafts above their points of fixity where large lateral displacements were expected to occur. The locations of the transverse steel were then established by following code requirements and by considering the construction limitations of CIDH piles. The transverse steel was spiral shaped.
Even though thief foundation designs differed, the towers themselves were designed to be identical. Each measures 185.5 m from the top of its pile cap and is designed as a hollow reinforced-concrete shaft with a truncated elliptical cross section (see figure opposite). Each tower’s width in plan varies along its height, narrowing uniformly from 9.5 m at the base of the tower to 6 m at the top. In the longitudinal direction, each pylon tapers from 9.5 m at the base to about 8 m right below the deck level, which is about 87 m above the tower base. Above the deck level the tower’s sections vary from 4.6 m just above the deck to 4.5 m at the top. Each tower was designed with a 2 by 4 m opening for pedestrian passage along the deck, a design challenge requiring careful detailing.
The towers were designed in a accordance with the latest provisions of the ATC earthquake design manual mentioned previously (ATC-32). Owing to the portal frame action along the bridge’s longitudinal axis, special seismic detailing was implemented in regions with the potential to develop plastic hinges in the event of seismic activity-specifically, just below the deck and above the footing. Special confining forces and alternating open stirrups-with 90 and 135 degree hooks-within the perimeter of the tower shaft.
In the transverse direction, the tower behaves like a cantilever, requiring concrete-confining steel at its base. Special attention was needed at the joint between the tower and the deck because of the central-plane stay-cable arrangement, it was necessary to provide sufficient torsional stiffness and special detailing at the pier-to-deck intersection. This intersection is highly congested with vertical reinforcing steel, the closely spaced confining stirrups of the tower shaft, and the deck prestressing and reinforcement.
The approach structures on either side of the main span are supported on hollow reinforced-concrete piers that measure 8.28 by 5 m in plan. The design and detailing of the piers are consistent with the latest versions of the ATC and AASHTO specifications for seismic design. Capacity design concepts were applied to the design of the piers. This approach required the use of seismic modeling with moment curvature elements to capture the inelastic behavior of elements during seismic excitation. Pushover analyses of the piers were performed to calculate the displacement capacity of the piers and to compare them with the deformations computed in the seismic time-history analyses. To ensure an adequate ductility of the piers-an essential feature of the capacity design approach-it was necessary to provide adequate concrete-confining steel at those locations within the pier bases where plastic hinges are expected to form.
The deck of the cable-stayed main span is composed of single-cell box girders of cast-in-place concrete with internal, inclined steel struts and transverse posttensioned ribs, or stiffening beams, toward the tops. Each box girder segment is 4.5 m deep and 6 m long. To facilitate construction and enhance the bridge’s elegant design, similar sizes were used for the other bridge spans. An integral concrete overlay with a thickness of 350 mm was installed instead of an applied concrete overlay on the deck. In contrast to an applied overlay, the integral overlay was cast along with each segment during the deck erection. Diamond grinding equipment was used to obtain the desired surface profile and required smoothness. The minimum grinding depth was 5 mm.
A total of 128 stay cables were used, the largest comprising 83 monostrands. All cables with a length of more than 80 m were equipped at their lower ends with internal hydraulic dampers. Corrosion protection for the monostrands involved galvanization of the wires through hot dipping, a tight high-density polyethylene (HDPE) sheath extruded onto each strand, and a special type of petroleum wax that fills all of the voids between the wires.
The stays are spaecd every 6 m and are arranged in a fan pattern.They are designed to be stressed from the tower only and are anchored in line with a continuous stiffening beam at the centerline of the deck.The deck anchorage system is actually a composite steel frame that encapsulates two continous steel plates that anchor the stays and transfer the stay forces in a continuous and repetitive system-via shear studs-throuthout the extent of the cable-supported deck (see figure above).A steel frame was designed to transfer the stays’ horizontal forces to the box girders through concrete-embedded longitudinal steel plates and to transfer the boxes’ vertical forces directly through the internal steel struts.This innovative and elegant load transfer system made rapid construction of the concrete deck segments-in cycles of three to five days-possible.
In addition to the geotechnical and seismic analyses,several structural analyses were performed to accurately capture the behavior of this complex bridge.
For the service-load analysis,which includes live,temperature,and wind loads,the engineers used SAP2000, a computer program created and maintained by Computers &Structrures,Inc.(CSI), of Berkeley, California.This program was selected for its ability to easily model the service loads and to account for tridimensional effects.For correct SAP2000 modeling, it was necessary to define a set of initial stresses on the cables, deck, and tower elements to capture the state of the structure at the end of construction.For the calculation of those initial stresses, a series of iterations on the basic model were performed to obtain the stay forces in the structure that balance both the bridges’s self-weight and the superimposed dead loads. Once the correct cable stiffness and stress distribution were obtained, all subsequent service-load analyses were performed to account for the geometric stiffness and P-deltaeffects, which consider the magnitude of an applied load (P) versus the displacement(delta).
The seismic analysis of the structure was conducted using the SADSAP structural analysis program, also a CSI product, based on the differences in seismic motions that will be experienced at the different piers based on their distance from one another.This sophisticated program has the capability to model inelastic behavior in that flexural plastic hinges can readily be simulated.Plastic hinge elements were modeled at varous locations along the structure where the results from a preliminary response spectrum analysis in SAP2000 indicated that inelastic behavior might be expected.The time-history records pertaining to the site were used in conjunction with the SADSAP model to botain a performace-based design of the piers and towers and to verifh the design of several deck stctions.
As previously mentioned,the construction contractor was brought on board early in the process;the company’s bid of $93 million was accepted and the project was awarded in March 2002.To guarantee unimpeded canal traffic,the bridge had to be constructed without the use of the canal waters.To accomplish this, the cast-in-place main-pain superstructure was erected using the balanced-cantilever method.Form travelers were used to accomplish this, and they were designed in such a way that they could be used as an integral part of the pier tables’ falsework.After assembly on the ground, two 380 Mg form travelers were raised independently into the pier table casting position and connected to each other.After an initial learning period, the contractor was able to achieve a four-day cycle for the casting of the cantilevered deck segments, an achievement that greatly enhanced the ability of the team to construct the project on time.Once the side-span and mai-span closures were cast, the travelers had to be removed from locations adjacent to the towers rather than over water so as to avoid any influence on canal traffic.
To save time, the towers approach structure, and piers were built simultaneously.The approach viaducts were designed and built using the span-by-span erection method by means of an underslung suupport truss.The east viaduct span was built first and the support truss was then removed and transferred to the west side so that it could be used to build the three spans of the west viaduct, one span at a time.
The bridge construction was completeed in Auguse 2004 at a cost of approximately $2,780 per square meter.Its opening awaits the completion of the rest of the highway it serves.
跨越世纪之桥
1962年,横跨巴拿马运河的美国大桥作为仅有的固定连接开放交通车。当初设计这座桥时4个车道的日交通量为60000辆,但是那么多年来他一直在“过载”中运行。为了减轻大桥线路的平静问题,促进巴拿马西部地区的发展,国家公共工作部决定修建一个新的高速公路系统。用于联系位于运河东部的巴拿马城北部地区和运河西部。百年大桥(为纪念巴拿马人民100周年而命名)已经开始修建。等他对外开放那时将有6个车道,这种预应力混凝土斜拉桥的主跨为420m,是西半球此种类型桥梁中跨径最大的。
2000年,MOP邀请国际桥梁设计公司竞争设计此桥,有两方面要求:一是技术,二是投资。2000年12月,MOP总共收到了来自全球各地桥梁设计公司的8个方案。在技术优势上列出了三个侯选公司后,MOP最终选择了旧金山的T.Y.Lin设计桥梁,提供修建场地,依靠该公司的财政实力。
百年大桥的设计是史上无前例的,是气势宏伟的,是传统设计方法与所谓的快进度设计方法的结合。为了能在27个月内及时完成工程,在2001年12月施工开始前的设计工作的30%得进展顺利才行。选择的承包商—法国的Wiesbanden在被MOP相中后立即签订了合同。因此,桥梁设计的完成与施工联系在一起,整个工序类似于设计—修建。
被选中的设计以两个的塔柱为特色,每一个塔柱支撑着两组辐射式的缆索。塔柱、纵梁以及一些联系结构都由混凝土制作。
MOP联同巴拿马运河当局就大桥的设计提出了如下要求:
●主跨长度不得小于420m,能适应最近加宽的Gaillard Cut—运河的一小部分,横跨Continental Divide,2002年被修补过并加宽到了275m。
●为了容纳第二次世界大战汽车的一个起重机使用了一个垂直净长为80m,水平净长为70m的导航用支架。它是英国送给巴拿马运河当局用来维修运河大门及其设备的。
●车行道要足够宽,能容纳6个车道。每个方向3车道。
●路缘能容纳1.5m宽的人行道。
●设计应遵循美国各洲公路与运输工作者协会(ASHTO)关于公路100年工作寿命和H-25卡车荷载的标准。
●一个结构要有2个直径为0.6m泻水管。
●施工方法不能妨碍运河的正常工作,不管何时、用什么方法。
由于桥跨过长以及该地区较强的地震活动,没有哪部建设法则能涵盖此项工程的所有方面。因此T.Y.Lin国际确定了桥梁规范标准的那些部分可用,那些不可用。下列设计标准被用来作为此桥的设计标准。
缆索的塔柱结构必须建在避免偶然的轮船冲击力,还需要在水中修建深基础,这两方面是最重要的。然而,在初步设计阶段进行的地质勘测和钻孔取样表明运河东部和西部堤岸的地质和土壤条件很不一样,也就是塔柱坐落处。运河的东面,在过载的浅水区土层(坚硬度软到硬)下面有一大块中硬到坚硬连接紧密的玄武岩。工程师认为在桥这边的玄武岩能够提供修建塔柱和墩台及其他结构的平台。然而运河西面地质是臭名昭著的Cucaracha结构,也就是页岩粘土混杂砂岩、玄武岩和灰,很容易造成崩塌、滑坡。作为地下基层Cucaracha结构是相当稳定的,但是一旦暴露极易腐蚀风化。因此工程师认为西面踏柱、墩台及其相关结构应需修建伸基础。
在制度基础的详细设计方案之前,需要对该位置的地震危险性作一个全面的分析。工程的地震荷载设计是基于考虑到该位置的可能地震危险估计(PSHA)。这个估计确定了地震和对应的地面震动在水平方向的往返时间。PSHA总结了两个主要震动来说:一个是Rio Gatun Fault,能产生6.5Mw的震级。
7.7Mw的NPDB震级被作为地震时的安全系数,也就是说即使最大震级作用也不会对桥的运作造成不良影响,对桥的损害很小不过会造成一些裂缝。6.5Mw的Rio Gatun Fault震级被作为地震时的,一个微小的地震运动只对桥造成及小的损害不会产生裂纹。如果FEE荷载已知,SEE荷载就是它的1/3,假设FEE有一个最大加速度,即0.21g一个循环周期(500年)。此加速度有可能被超越,50年增加10%,100年增加18%,同样假设SEE也有一个最大加速度,即0.33g一个循环周期(2500年),它也有可能增大,50年增加2%,100年增加4%。
由于接近该位置的地震波来说方向确定性,所以用单个反应范围(一条曲线显示一批简易、潮湿、协调震动器的不同固有频率与个别地震加速度的统计规律)来描述水平面上两个相互垂直的运动的特征。为了研究分析桥梁双重支撑的耐久性(纵向、横向、竖向)组成的综合运动,需要借助反复工艺过程。以及一系列由三方面因素延迟时间估计,即该段估计时间被认为是由SEE和FEE地震产生的运动从一个点传到下一个点的时间假设地震波速度和塔柱之间的距离计算得到。波速大约为2.5㎞/s,延迟时间为0.5s~s,这对1~2㎞长的桥梁是最合适的。
土基相互作用研究用来确定土壤和基础的硬度,以及地震刺激测量在动力学分析上的应用。这些研究通过土壤不同深度的浅性堆积和非浅性堆积研究来实现。研究中的等植堆积长度,此长代表堆积层长度的一部分受地震运动的影响,一般为2~10m。在这样一个三畏空间模型中,土壤通过其硬度可从6个方向土体的运动(三方向的轴向力和三方向的扭转弯距)。因为桥所在位置包含许多不同土壤类型的土层,因此每一层需要用不同的硬度模量来表示然后进行分析。
一旦以上的分析完成,T.Y国际公司的工程师考虑到该工程负责人的要求对几个不同的混凝土斜拉索设计进行评估对此。很多结构系统需检查,包括主要的可变因素,如塔的结构、斜索的构造、桥跨的设计、上层结构的交叉段以上述结构的支撑情况。
桥面的提升对塔结构有非常重要的影响。提案要求至少把桥面板提升80m,最经济的塔的构造包括各自的双杆塔,也就是说,两杆将通过交叉钢束相互连接。工程负责人后选择了单杆塔,因为这样设计施工简便,可运作、简单又不失优雅。
最后工程师设计出了一座:宽34.3m,主跨420m长的斜索桥,两个200m长的边跨位于主跨的两端,连接结构在边跨的末端。东端的混凝土连接构造长420m,而西端有3个,长分别为60m,60m和66m,所以桥的全长为1052m,桥的边跨由4个桥墩支撑,至西向东为P1,P2,P3和P4。
桥的主梁从桥台是一个连续的箱形绗架,并且只在支座处设置伸缩缝。这些标准化的伸缩缝允许桥面板有400mm的伸缩风4。多方位的弧形轴承用在墩位和支座上以适应其运动。
把桥面板安装在两塔柱上以便悬臂法施工,并且提供桥面板的扭转刚度和册向约束。横向的荷载和风载通过塔柱以及位于P1,P2,P3和P4顶部的钢筋混凝土剪力索被部分地分散。支座和塔柱处的桥面板允许在纵向活动。纵向荷载、地震荷载、活载以及温度荷载被称为所熟悉的网络框架结构行为吸收、分散。通过塔柱和桥面板形成的接口,很像建筑物结构的门,它与两塔柱的相对硬度互成比例地运作。
如前面提到过的东西地区玄武的存在意味着此处需要浅层基础。特别是东西塔柱、连接结构和墩台需要深扎于Cucaracha结构中。这就需要一些外径为2m,长度为25~35m的钻孔(CIDH)转动轴。用弯距分析来确定在不同数量的纵向增强钢筋作用下动轴的工作性能。结果不符合要求,基于这些结果工程师决定转动轴中的纵向钢筋应力混凝土数量的1%。纵向钢筋的布置应满足以下规范要求,考虑承包商优先选择的CIDH柱施工的。
传动轴塑性区域的最少横向钢筋数被确定,因为每个传动轴距顶端1/8处和所有传动轴顶部吸收了最强的地需要作用。一旦这个数目被决定,他就被用来作为滞后位移发生的最小区域。横向钢筋的布置遵循以下规范,并考虑CIDH柱施工的局限。横向钢筋呈螺旋布置。
然而它们被设计成不同的作用,索塔被设计成完全相同的。每个都放在距墩帽185.5m的高处,被设计成中的预应力砼结构,一个被截去顶端的椭圆形受力面积。每个索塔的宽度从它的高度上变化很大,在底部都是9.5m,在塔顶是6m。在纵桥向上,从塔底部的9.5m到拱上建筑标高处恰好宽度为8m,且矢高为87m。在桥面建筑标高以上的塔部分宽度从4.6m变到塔顶的4.5m。每个索塔两侧都带有4m宽的人行道。这种设计上的挑战需要细节上的小心谨慎。
索塔被设计的应用了先进的ATC抗震技术。在沿纵向桥的方向上,特殊的细部结构和区域被设计为塑料的,特别是桥面建筑下部和拱圈上部。特殊的钢材被应用到塔的拐角处,在这些地方有较高的应力,需要90°和135°的钩子钩住。
在纵向桥上,挠的性能就像一个悬臂,需要在其下部钢筋。特别要注意塔和桥面相接触。因为在塔中间设置的悬索,它会提供足够的抗扭钢度和特殊的墩和桥面的连接是很有必要的。这些交叉的地方没有竖向预应力钢筋,并且设置在距塔的中性轴较近的地方,桥面构造也要设置预应力。
主跨两边的结构是支撑在一个8.28m×5m的中空的预应力砼的桥墩上。桥墩的设计和细部构造是与ATC和AASHTO的具体结构相一致的。允许承载能力应用到设计中。这种方法需要一种模型,此模型的构造件的性能反应墩的性能。分析桥墩的边县形式来计算承载力并且与时程分析进行比较。这样来保证墩的承载作用(这是一种用特征分析的方法来标承载力的)。在这些地方提供钢筋砼是有必要的,这些地方与基础表现出所希望的形式。
桥面建筑的用悬索拉起的主跨是由整体浇注的单独的箱梁组成的,包括钢筋,肋板、梁、并向塔高的方向。每个箱梁件是4.2m高,6m长。为了更易建筑和增加桥梁设计的简洁;在其它的路径采用了相似的尺寸。桥上铺的是整体的砼350mm,并不是直接在桥面上浇注的。与整体浇注相比,它是沿架设的箱梁浇注的,碾压设备被应用来获得平整度的路面。最小的碾压厚度为5mm。
共用到了128根悬索,最大的一个是由83根钢铰线组成。所有大于80m长度的索用器具设在塔顶的末端。对钢铰线的保护包括对于进行扭处理,及张拉,和一种特殊的材用充满数根钢铰线之间。
每隔6m设置悬索并且是成对设置的。它们通过用连续梁在中性轴上锚固并在塔中间直线拉起。桥面锚固系统是由钢架组成的,这个钢架由两个连续的桥面板组成锚固悬索。钢架被设计成通过纵向桥的桥面转移水平力,并且通过整体的钢结构转移竖向力。这种创新的简洁的荷载转移系统使桥面建筑的恫结构快速建筑,有可能的话,三到五天就能循环一次。
另外,由地质技术的分析,一些结构分析能精确的表现复杂桥梁的整体状况。为了估计人行道和这种长期效应作用下的钢筋松弛,一种被称为TANGO的计算机程序被应用,它由这篇文章的作者发展的,现在已被提供。这个程序被成功的应用到40座悬索桥的分析设计中,TANGO使得在不同的建筑状态下模拟不同的结构分析成为可能。
为了工作荷载的分析,包括活载、温度荷载和风荷载,工程师应用了加利福尼亚的Berkeley公司发明设计的一个计算机程序,叫SAP2000。为何选择这个程序是因为这个软件容易建立工作荷载模型并算出三维效果。准确建立SAP2000模型,有必要确定科索、桥面板和塔柱一系列的初始应力,以便捕捉结构最后破坏的状态。通过这些初始应力的计算,基于基础模型的一连串迭代法可以得到结构中用于平衡桥梁自重和超静载。一旦获得正确是斜索硬度及其应力分布,所有用来说明几何硬度和P-delta效应等的随后工作荷载分析也得到了。P-delta是应用荷载(P)与位移比值的大小。
结构的地震分析应用一个名叫SADSAP的结构分析程序,也是CSI的产品。彼此之间距离不同的不同桥墩之间,地震运动也是不同的。这个先进的程序能模拟可弯曲的塑性铰接处的非弹性行为。塑性铰接元素被模拟在结构的不同部位,这些部位是SAP2000初始反应设及范围分析中显示非弹性行为的地方。有关位置的时间过程记录和SADSAP模型结合起来获得桥墩和塔柱的基本表现设计,并核查几个桥面板部位的设计。
在前面提到过,工程承包商在施工过程的早期就动工了,该公司的9300万美元的投标竞标成功,2002年3月交付工程。为了保证不妨碍运河的交通,桥梁施工不能使用运河水。因此,主梁上部结构施工采用就地浇注悬臂施工法。用来完成,它们被设计成为桥墩基础的脚手架的完整部分。完成基座部分的组装之后,两地立在就地浇注的桥墩基座上,被此相互连接。在桥墩基座施工完成后,脱离开来进入最初浇铸的桥面板位置。
为了节约时间,塔柱连接结构和桥墩的施工同时进行。相连接的高架桥用一个下悬式支撑绗架进行施工。东面高架桥主跨先被修建起来,然后移去支撑绗架迁至西面,这样可以同时修西面高架桥的三根桥跨和一根主跨。
桥梁的施工在2004年8月完成,每平方米花费2780美元。他的对外开放通车需等它的高速公路部分完成才行。
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