Chapter 1. Introduction
1. What is language?
Language can mean
what a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)
the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare’s language, Luxun’s language)
a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)
the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language)
the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)
a tool for human communication. (social function)
a set of rules. (rule-governed)
Sapir’s definition (1921)
“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”
Hall’s definition (1968)
Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”
Chomsky’s definition (1957)
“From now on I will consider language to be a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”
Language can be generally defined as
a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Language is a system
Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.
Language is arbitrary
Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with
Language is symbolic in nature
Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare
Language is primarily vocal
Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.
Language is human-specific
Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.
The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett)
Arbitrariness
----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings.
Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… )
Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…
Productivity/Creativity
Peculiar to human languages,users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.
A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.
The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires
Duality
Lower level----sounds (meaningless)
Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)
A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.
Displacement
----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.
A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year
There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.
Cultural transmission
----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).
Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.
A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.
The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.
Interchangeability
Interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that a person has the ability to both speak and hear the same signal. Anything that a person is able to hear, they have the ability to reproduce through spoken language.
Specialization
Human language sounds are specialized for communication. When dogs pant it is to cool themselves off, when humans speak it is to transmit information.
Functions of language
Phatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.
Directive: get the hearer to do something.
Informative: give information about facts.
Interrogative: get information from others.
Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.
Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startle, soothe, worry or please)
Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions.
The origin of language
The divine-origin theory---- Language is a gift of God to mankind.
The invention theory---- imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together.
The evolutionary theory---- the result of physical and psychological development.
许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.
当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;
当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;
当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.
2. What is linguistics?
----Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
----A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.
Four principles of linguistic studies
Exhaustiveness/adequacy
Consistency
Economy
Objectivity
The scope or major branches of linguistics
Theoretical linguistics
Phonetics----speech sound (description, classification, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics.
Phonology----sound patterns of languages
Morphology----the form of words
Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.
Semantics----the meaning of language (when the meaning of language is conducted in the context of language use----Pragmatics)
Phonetics
Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
Use of linguistics
Applied linguistics----linguistics and language teaching
Sociolinguistics---- social factors (e.g. class, education) affect language use
Psycholinguistics----linguistic behavior and psychological process
Stylistics----linguistic and literature
Applied linguistics
Sociolinguistics
Psycholinguistics
Some other applications
1.Anthropological linguistics
2.Neurolinguistics
3.Computational linguistics (e.g. machine translation)
Some important distinctions in linguistics
Descriptive vs prescriptive
Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic)
Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)
Synchronic vs diachronic
Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)
Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)
Langue vs parole (F. de Saussure)
Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.
Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.
Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.
Competence and performance (Chomsky)
Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication
Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
Syntagmatic—horizontal relationship between linguistic elements—forming linear sequences
Paradigmatic---vertical relationship between forms---might occupy the same particular place in a structure.
Traditional grammar vs modern linguistics
Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework
Modern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework
Task: work in groups and discuss the following questions
1. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?
2.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?
3. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?
4. How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?
Chapter 2 Phonology
Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.
Phonetics
----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.
Three branches of phonetics
Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”
Auditory phonetics----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”
Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.
Articulatory phonetics
Speech organs: three important areas
Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat; The oral cavity ---- the mouth; Nasal cavity ---- the nose.
The diagram of speech organs
Orthographic representation of speech sounds
---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.—compromise system (Hu, 58)
Henry Sweet—Handbook of Phonetics
Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ l ], [ pit ]
Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]
Some major articulatory variables
---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:
Voicing---- voiced & voiceless
Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasal
Aspiration ----- aspirated & unaspirated
Classification of English speech sounds
---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories:
Vowels
Consonants –the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the airstream at some point of the vocal tract are call consonants.
Note: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.
Classification of consonants
---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions:
The manner of articulation
The place of articulation
The manner of articulation
stops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];
fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [W], [T], [F], [V], [h];
affricates: [tF], [dV];
liquids: [l](lateral), [r];
nasals: [m], [n], [N];
glides/semivowels: [w], [j].
The place of articulation
bilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w];
labiodental: [ f ], [v];
dental: [W], [T];
alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r];
palatal: [F], [V], [tF], [dV], [ j ];
velar: [k], [g], [N];
glottal: [h].
Classification of vowels
---- English vowels can be divided into two large categories:
Monophthongs or pure/single vowels
Diphthongs or gliding vowels
Monophthongs or pure/single vowels
----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:
front vowels: [I:], [I], [e], [Z], [A], [B];
central vowels: [E:], [E], [Q];
back vowels: [u:], [u], [C:], [C], [B:].
According to the openness of the mouth
Close: [I:], [I], [u:], [u].
Semi-close: [e], [E:];
Semi-open: [E], [C];
Open: [A], [B], [C], [B:], [Q];
According to the shape of the lips or the degree of lip rounding
rounded: [u:], [u], [C:], [C];
unrounded: [I:], [I], [e], [Z], [A], [B], [E:], [E], [Q], [B:].
According to the length of the vowels
long: [I:], [E:], [u:], [C:], [B:]
short: [I], [e], [Z], [A], [E], [Q], [B], [u], [C].
Diphthongs/gliding vowels
[ei], [ai], [aU], [EU], [Ri], [iE], [ZE], [UE].
Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.
A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad had lad
A velar consonant: nod god cod pod rod
Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat pat
An alveolar consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quick
A palato-alveolar consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zip
A dental consonant: lie buy thigh thy tie rye
A glide: one war yolk rush
Underline the words that end with a sound as required:
A fricative
pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave message
A nasal
train bang leaf limb
A stop
drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through
tip
An affricate: rack such ridge booze
A central vowel:
mad lot but boot word
A front vowel:
reed pad load fate bit bed cook
A rounded vowel:
who he bus her hit true boss bar walk
A back vowel:
paid reap fool top good father
Describe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions:
Letter、Brother、Sunny、Hopper、Itching、Lodger、Calling、Singing、Robber、either
Phonology
Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.
Phonetics & phonology
Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.
Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.
Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
Phone, phoneme, allophone
A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].
A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; it refers to a sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language. /pin/&/bin/ /pin/&/pen/
Allophones ---- the phone that can be represented as the same phoneme in different phonetic environments without changing the meaning of the words. “let”, “play” and “tell”
Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.
Phonemic contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g./b/ and /p/ in [ bIt ] and [pIt].
Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].
Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.
Free Variation
When the substitution of one sound for another does not produce a different word, but only a different pronunciation of the same word. Then the two sounds are in FREE VARIATION. “act”, “apt”, “that boy”, “good morning”.
Complementary distribution
When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are said to be in COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION.
Aspirated plosives/ph/,/th/, /kh/ ---unaspirated /p/, /t/, /k/
/l/, /lo/, /ɫ/
Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme
Some rules of phonology
Sequential rules
Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.
If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.
If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.
a) the first phoneme must be /s/,
b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,
c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.
* [ N ] never occurs in initial position in English and standard Chinese,but it does occur in some dialects, e.g. in Cantonese: “牛肉,我, 俄语……”
Assimilation rule
Assimilation rule----assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts:
indiscreet alveolar [In]
inconceivable velar [IN ]
input bilabial [Im]
Deletion rule
Deletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.
Suprasegmental features
Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme):
stress (Word stress /Sentence stress)
The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:
verb: im5port; in5crease; re5bel; re5cord …
noun: 5import; 5increase; 5rebel; 5record …
Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:
compound: 5blackbird; 5greenhouse; 5hotdog…
noun phrase: black 5bird; green 5house; hot 5dog…
The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns:
modifier: 5dining-room; 5readingroom; 5sleepingbag…
doer: sleeping 5baby; swimming 5fish; flying 5plane…
Tone
Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.
ma 妈 (level)
ma 麻 (the second rise)
ma 马 (the third rise)
ma 骂 (the fourth fall)
Intonation
When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.
English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:
falling tone (matter of fact statement)
rising tone (doubts or question)
the fall-rise tone (implied message)
For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.”
Syllable (what is syllable?)
Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.
Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.
The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, e.g. [mAn].
The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowel. But [l], [n] and [m] might also function as peaks as in “ apple, hidden, rhythm”. –syllabic
Sentence stress
Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.
Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.
He is driving my car.
My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.
Grammatical functions of intonations
----Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English.
a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.
b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units, e.g. “John didn’t come because of Marry”
Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry.
With two intonation units, it means: Marry was the reason why John didn’t come.
Exercises: Think of the utterance in different intonations:
“Those who bought quickly made a profit.”
c) It can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing nucleus on it, e.g.
Jack came yesterday by train.
d) Its attitudinal functions.
Falling tone ---- matter-of-fact statement,
downright assertion, commands.
Rising tone ----politeness, encouragement,
pleading.
Note: these can only be very general indications. The specific attitudinal meaning of an intonation pattern must be interpreted within a context.