
| Unit 7 Overview | |
| In this unit you will : | |
| Know about researches on the causes of Mozart's deaths | |
| Take a test on fast reading | |
| Learn some latest discoveries on attention processing | |
| Read another story about cloning | |
1. How does Faith Fitzgerald analyze the cause of Mozart's death? What means does she resort to? What conclusion does she come at? 答案
Without modern technology, Faith Fitzgerald analyzes the cause of Mozart's death mainly by means of deductive reas oning. She attributes the symptom of anasarca to three causes: liver disease, kidney disease, and congestive heart failure. When the former two causes are ruled off, she considers an epidemic fever that rampaged Vienna at the time of Mozart's death. She concludes that Mozart died of congestive heart failure brought on by rheumatic fever.
2. What do you think of the historical clinical pathology conference? 答案
The conference has resolved the mysteries of many great people's deaths such as Mozart, Edgar Allen Poe, and Alexander the Great. From the text we can see that the conference is not only interesting but useful for the doctors-in-training. The conference lecturers do not resort to modern lab technologies, but use the traditional way of deduction and pay attention to all symptoms. The scientific methods involved in the analysis help the doctors-in-training keep alert to all the possibilities and make the right diagnosis.
TEXT 2
B. Topics for discussion.
1. What role can drug-detector dogs play in neurobiology? 答案
Drug-detector dogs can help neurobiologists to understand the brain mechanisms called "attention processing", which determines what a person pays attention to and for how long. They could even help to identify some of the many genes that underlie attentional processing. At the same time, they help them to understand and deal with the problems such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in human beings.
2. What's the significance of the prefrontal cortex to an animal's ability to focus its attention? 答案
Investigations show that several areas in the brain's prefrontal cortex are especially important for attention processing. The prefrontal cortex alone functions as an "executive", which makes strategic planning and allocates cognitive resources. Besides, the prefrontal cortex may be able to increase the supply of stimulatory chemicals needed for prolonged concentration. It is in a position to regulate the activity of the cortex. So the prefrontal cortex is able to determine what an animal pays attention to and for how long.
Text 1
Postmortem with Strings
I. Information Related to the Text
1. About Mozart
(born in Salzburg, 27 January 1756; died in Vienna, 5 December 1791)
Son of Leopold Mozart, he showed musical gifts at a very early age, composing when he was five and when he was six playing before the Bavarian elector and the Austrian empress. Leopold felt that it was proper, and might also be profitable, to exhibit his children's God-given genius (Maria Anna, ‘Nannerl’, 1751-1829, was a gifted keyboard player): so in mid-1763 the family set out on a tour that took them to Paris and London, visiting numerous courts en route. Mozart astonished his audiences with his precocious skills; he played to the French and English royal families, had his first music published and wrote his earliest symphonies. The family arrived home late in 1766; nine months later they were off again, to Vienna, where hopes of having an opera by Mozart performed were frustrated by intrigues.
II. Language Notes
1. Down on the brick floor of the University of Maryland's Davidge Hall, a noted professor of medicine is about to perform a most unusual postmortem.
(在马里兰州立大学戴威基大厅里砖铺的地面上,一位著名的医学教授正准备进行一次极为奇特的尸检。)
Postmortem: an examination of a dead body to determine the cause of death; an analysis or discussion of an event soon after it has occurred.
e.g. an election postmortem on why the party lost.
2. Their succor amounted to a blood-letting and a few cold compresses.
(他们的救助方法无非是放血或用冷敷布降温。)
Succor: assistants and support in times of hardship and distress.
e.g. They were busy providing succor to the injured.
3. The diagnosis - death by rabies - was topped off, appropriately enough, with a monologue from Poe's story "The Black Cat".
(最后的诊断结果为,他死于狂犬病,用选自坡所著的《黑猫》中的一段独白作为诊断的结束语很恰如其分。)
Top something off: finish something in a memorable or notable way.
e.g. The festive celebration was topped off with the awarding of presents.
4. Rheumatic fever is triggered by an invading bacterium that elicits antibodies from the immune system.
(风湿热的形成是由于细菌入侵诱发免疫系统产生抗体。)
Elicit: evoke or draw out.
e.g. Taboos can elicit quite violent reactions if they are broken.
5. One could say that the epidemic was immaterial to his death, that it was coincidental
(人们可以说那场流行病对他的死因并不重要,那只是巧合而已。)
Immaterial: unimportant under the circumstances, irrelevant.
e.g. It is immaterial whether he comes himself or sends a substitute.
Text 2
Pay Attention, Rover
I. Information Related to the Text
1. The Australian Customs Service Detector Dog Unit
The Australian Customs Service Detector Dog Unit (DDU) plays an important role in the work of customs in helping to protect the Australian community from the importation of illicit drugs.
Detector Dog teams are used to locate drugs concealed in baggage, cargo containers, vessels, vehicles, aircraft, international parcels/mail and carried on a person's body. The teams also work with Federal and State police forces and other government agencies in operations such as searches of houses and large buildings.
From small beginnings, with two dogs in Sydney in 1969, the DDU has developed to become an integral part of Border Administration with its Canberra-based training program supporting operational units in all States and the Northern Territory.
II. Language Notes
1. Among the cavalcade of luggage passing beneath Florence's all-smelling nose is a nondescript hardback suitcase.
(行李连续不断地从佛罗伦斯无所不查的鼻子下通过,其中有一个毫不起眼的硬皮手提箱。)
Nondescript: lacking distinctive or interesting features or characteristics.
e.g. She lived in a nondescript suburban apartment block.
2. Blips appear on a cluttered monitor infrequently, and at irregular intervals.
(在一个有杂乱回波的监视器上会出现不多的光点,而且间隔也不规则。)
Cluttered: crowded untidily
e.g. All of the surfaces were cluttered with an assortment of equipments.
3. Vigilance tasks push the limits of attention by providing signals that are infrequent and unpredictable - which is exactly what is expected of the detector dogs when they are asked to notice just a few odour molecules in the air, and then to home in on the source.
(通过找寻不经常出现而且无法预测的信号,警觉测试任务进一步锻炼了注意力。这正是希望探测犬能够做到的一点,能在空气中嗅到很少一些气味分子,然后就直捣源头。)
Home in on: move or be aimed towards with great accuracy.
e.g. More than 100 missiles were launched, homing in on radar emissions.
4. Others, like Robbins, envisage a more democratic mechanism.
(其他科学家,如罗宾斯,设想的是一种更民主化的机制。)
Envisage: contemplate or conceive as a possibility or desirable future event.
e.g. The Rome Treaty envisaged free movement across frontiers.
5. Desmone's work on monkeys suggests that the activity in the prefrontal and visual cortex which creates the image of keys also inhibits other neuronal connections that would conjure up distracting images.
(戴西摩纳在猴子身上做的研究显示,脑额叶前部皮层与视觉处理皮层中的活动建立了钥匙这个形象,同时还阻止与神经元的其它联系产生分散注意力的形象。)
Conjure up: make something appear unexpectedly or seemingly from nowhere as if by magic.
e.g. Ann conjured up a most delicious home-made hot pot.
课文一
尸检和弦乐
安尼塔·昆茨
是什么最终导致了莫扎特的早逝?他死了数百年后,在马里兰州召开了一次不同寻常的临床病理学会议,以诊断这位天才的死因,会上,费思· 菲茨杰拉德教授提出了其独到的诊断意见。这次会议如何不同寻常?菲茨杰拉德教授又是如何进行尸检的?下面的文章将会澄清这些疑团。
在马里兰州立大学戴威基大厅里的砖铺地面上,一位著名的医学教授正准备进行一次最为不同寻常的尸检。虽然两百多年来,这座前后座椅间坡度很大的带圆顶的圆形剧场举办了各种医学讲座及演示,今天提供的 内容却不同一般,因为根本见不到死者的遗体。尸解结束时,一个弦乐四重奏乐队将奉献十八世纪的音乐节目。这儿正在举行的是该校第六次历史临床病理学年会。每年,该大学的医学院会邀请一位医生就一些历史人物——从艾德加·爱伦·坡到亚历山大大帝——所患的神秘疾病作出诊断。今年的病人是一位三十五岁的男性,患病两周后死于维也纳。他的遗体被安葬在一个普通的墓地里,但他那才华横溢的音乐至今仍在世界各地的音乐厅中回荡。
费思·菲茨杰拉德是内科医生,加利福尼亚大学戴维斯医学院教授。她首先提出:“当一些杰出人物死于普通疾病时,我们就会感到不安。”她的开场白给那些急于解释随后的研究的人提了个醒。当事人当时正处于创作的颠峰期,且那一阵健康状况很好,突然一病不起,发高烧、头疼、盗汗、手脚浮肿。几天之内,浮肿就扩散到了身体各处——也就是我们所说的全身性水肿。这位受害者卧病在床,胸部和腹部还出了疹子。病了一周时间之后,他诉说全身疼痛,遭受了阵阵呕吐和痢疾的折磨。他神智仍一直清醒和警觉,但到1791年12月4日晚,出现谵妄症状,陷入昏迷,午夜过后便病逝。
费思·菲茨杰拉德解释说,围绕着这一特殊病历的争议,是因为死者名人身份:沃尔夫冈·阿马戴乌斯·莫扎特的去世“一点儿都不会神秘至今,如果那个十二月的晚上死去的是沃尔夫冈·阿马戴乌斯·穆勒的话。”此后,被名人效应左右的医生们归结了一百多种使莫扎特死亡的病因。菲茨杰拉德指出,“这些[诊断]的每一种,争论时的热情要远大于对数据的关注。”“当然,莫扎特死于梅毒,死因怎么说都行——因为每个伟人都死于梅毒。”
曾给生病的作曲家看病的医生们同样也帮不上什么忙。他们的救助方法就是放血或用冷敷布降温。当时没有对尸体进行尸检。康奈尔大学音乐理论家尼尔·扎斯罗简述了莫扎特生平,据他所说,莫扎特死亡与安葬时,两座教堂载明的死因都是“严重的粟疹热”,在当时这是对出现籽状疹症候群的一种通用描述。报纸上登载的关于其死亡的诊断则有声有色,不怀好意,认为是一种有毒的性病,还有心脏浮肿——这在十八世纪用来指体液潴留及严重水肿。
甚至一些在莫扎特小时侯给他检查过身体、颇有学识的人士,对他最终的死因也形成自己的看法。扎斯罗说,“他们认为,每个个体生来就存储有限的生命要素,当这种生命要素以他们认为的在年轻的莫扎特体内的强度消耗时,这种要素就可能提前耗尽,导致早逝。”
就这样,过多的想象以及时间的流逝,使悲剧演变成一个亟待解决的医学之谜。对于该医学院副院长菲利普·迈考威艾克来说,这正是他所感兴趣的材料。六年前,他在一本马里兰州的历史杂志上读到一篇关于艾德加·爱伦·坡临终情况的叙述,然后便发起组织了这个会议。他雇了一个演员扮演坡,还邀请他的同事迈克尔·本尼特斯重新审查这位作家的病史。 用选自坡所著的故事《黑猫》中的一段独白,恰如其分地最终得出诊断结果:死于狂犬病。死于狂犬病的说法吸引了相当多的注意力,以致成为电视益智问答节目《危险》中的一个问题。
从那以后,参加会议的人探讨过亚历山大大帝、贝多芬以及雅典军事和政治领袖培里克利斯的死因。到目前为止,迈考威艾克的医学同行们所作出的诊断 ,要是不算平庸的话 ,也是比较常见的——这使得会议不仅有趣,而且对于与会的受训医生来说也很实用。医学博士保罗·萨赫戴夫正在传染病研究领域接受最后一年培训,他说,给历史人物会诊过程中体现一种 彻底性,而当前临床实践有时就缺乏这一点。“一旦你过了见习期及住院实习期,你就容易不假思索地作出一些诊断,而不仔细考虑所有的可能性。”
萨赫戴夫说,通过没有现代科技帮助的一个病例考察另一种医疗工作,也具有启发性。在莫扎特这个例子中,最显著的病症——全身水肿一般有三个成因:肝脏疾病、肾脏疾病以及充血性心力衰竭。没有现代的实验技术,菲茨杰拉德必须运用演绎推理。她第一步是排除肝脏疾病,因为并没有出现黄疸症状。
一些医学史家曾暗示是肾脏疾病,因为莫扎特的耳朵有些畸形。耳朵和肾脏几乎在人类胚胎阶段同时发育;因此,畸形的耳朵也可以表明肾脏有问题。但是菲茨杰拉德说,莫扎特并没有肾脏机能不良的病史。而且,严重的肾脏病在发病过程中产生谵妄症状时间要早。
因此,最后菲茨杰拉德转向了充血性心力衰竭。如果心脏不能泵压足够的血液通过肾脏以排出存在于体液中的盐分,也可能会导致全身水肿。用戴威基大厅配备的听诊器,在场的任何一位听众都会很容易确诊心脏疾病。“不幸的是,”菲茨杰拉德说,“在莫扎特死后二十五六年 才发明听诊检查。而且也没有记录表明,他的医生曾经把耳朵贴在胸部听心跳。如果我真得面对一个出疹、发烧、盗汗、浮肿的家伙,我大概也不会想要把耳朵靠在他的胸部。”
但是,菲茨杰拉德注意到,据说在莫扎特去世时,维也纳正遭受一场流行性风湿热的侵扰。风湿热的形成是由于某种细菌入侵诱发免疫系统产生抗体。抗体袭击细菌,但它们也可能会袭击体质虚弱的寄主的心脏、皮肤、关节和大脑。菲茨杰拉德指出,这种反会引发产生在莫扎特身上的其它病症,也会导致充血性心力衰竭。风湿热对神经系统造成的后果舞蹈病,可以用来解释莫扎特临终时的谵妄症状,也可以解释其令人困惑的性格变化——在去世前几天, 这种变化导致他把自己最宠爱的金丝雀从病房中赶了出去。
她说:“人们可以说那场流行病对他的死因并不重要,那只是巧合而已。但我认为,要是对此不加以考虑,则有些自大。”菲茨杰拉德运用奥卡姆剃刀原则——即对某一现象最简单的解释可能性最大——作出了诊断:由风湿热引起的充血性心力衰竭。
听众们显得平静,而且深感满意,就好象沉浸在对一位亡友的颂扬之中。人们分发着三明治,弦乐四重奏乐队正在做演出准备,当第一个音符奏响的时候,沃尔夫冈·阿马戴乌斯·莫扎特又重获生命。
课文二
注意,三心二意者
艾米·戴维斯·墨兹第
上午八点十五分。一架航班降落在墨尔本图拉玛瑞那国际机场。几百件行李被匆忙地从飞机上运到行李申领处的传送带上。佛罗伦斯,这条皮毛柔滑光亮的黑色拉布拉多雌犬,摇着尾巴,汪汪地叫声盖过了轰鸣的引擎声、通风口的呼呼的气流声和刺耳的发电机声。
行李连续不断地从佛罗伦斯无所不闻的鼻子下通过,其中有一个毫不起眼的硬皮手提箱。在箱子里聚苯乙烯泡沫塑料的包装内,在散装的胡椒和咖啡中,有18公斤用冷藏纸包装,塑料加热封口的大麻制剂。
巧妙隐藏的毒品并不能瞒过超级辑毒犬佛罗伦斯。她不停地抓挠着手提箱,引起了训犬员的警觉。佛罗伦斯完全是一个新犬种:她或许是世界上唯一专门培育辑毒犬种计划的产物。对于普通犬来说,使之成为辑毒犬的概率只有0.1%。由澳大利亚海关服务部负责的新犬培育计划极其成功,其培育出的狗超过50%达标。
开始时这完全是一种实用性的练习,把非法毒品拒之于澳大利亚国门之外,但结果可能会发挥作用的,是在在一个完全不同的领域——比较而言较为神秘的神经生物学领域。结果,使佛罗伦斯成为一条顶级辑毒犬的,不是她的鼻子,而是她不懈的专注,加上一些其它的基本特性。佛罗伦斯和她的亲戚们可以帮助神经生物学家了解他们所称的“注意力处理过程"——一种决定一个人会专注于什么以及多长时间的大脑机制——以及其相对面,如注意力缺乏/多动症(ADHD)这样的问题。
澳大利亚海关服务部自1969年起就用狗来查寻毒品。根据传统,狗是从走失犬监管处或私人养犬者那里挑选。但通过这种方法寻觅到优秀侦缉犬的成功率很低,侦探犬训练部高级教官约翰·凡德鲁对此无法忍受,于是在1993年,与凯斯·钱伯尼斯——当时她还是墨尔本大学的博士生——联手开展了一个培育计划。
钱伯尼斯现在为澳大利亚皇家导盲犬联合会工作,她首先界定侦缉犬的六种特性。她说,“首先,每一条优秀的侦缉犬必须喜欢受人夸奖,”因为这是训练者可以支配的唯一工具。接着它需要有敏锐的搜寻直觉,还要有体力,能胜任每分钟约300次的繁重的嗅查任务。理想的侦缉犬还能毫无畏惧地应对在机场内水泄不通的人群和货船轰鸣的轮机舱。
恐怖的伊凡
剩下的两种特性相互紧密联系,本质上是认知性的。无论机场或码头的喧嚣如何分心,一条出色的侦缉犬必须能专注搜寻毒品的任务。这就是神经生物学家所称的“选择性注意力”。最后,毒品可能有上万个潜在的隐匿之处,侦缉犬必须能连续使注意力保持数小时之久。神经生物学家称之为“持续性注意力”。
为了培育出超级辑毒犬,钱伯尼斯在三代侦缉犬中寻找具有这些特性。她也发现在这六种特性中,选择性注意力最可以遗传。钱伯尼斯打算今年晚些时候发表的发现 报告显示,狗在集中注意的能力方面的个体差异,25%可以用基因来解释。据伦敦精神病研究所社会、遗传和发展精神病学研究中心副主任罗伯特·普罗明的说法,这是动物的一个复杂行为可以遗传的程度。
钱伯尼斯说:只过了三代,“该培育计划就突然获得意想不到的成功。”“我们原希望该计划培育的幼犬30%能成为侦缉犬,但实际的成功率往往超过50%。”
凡德鲁和钱伯尼斯在估测狗的专注能力时,把一个玩具扔入高草丛生的一块地里,根据它们对玩具保持的注意力把它们划分为一到五等。伊凡得了一个糟糕的分数。他跟着玩具,但半路上被其它狗撒尿的地方或被围场中的花朵分散了注意力。 罗伊娜却相反,她具有罕见的专注力:有人甚至会认为她是着迷。当凡德鲁扔出玩具后,搜寻中没有任何东西能使她分心,没有别的狗能让她分心,食物也不能。即使没人在一边鼓励她,她照样会不停地寻找。 罗伊娜得了五分。
和狗的专注力相仿,人的专注能力取决于一些相互重叠交叉的认知行为,包括记忆和学习——神经生物学家所说的注意力处理过程。
测试人类的注意力可以让试验对象辨识屏幕上的颜色而忽略形状,或者辨别声音而忽略视觉提示,或者进行“警觉测试”。做警觉测试就好象当一名操作雷达的军事人员。在一个有杂乱回波的监视器上会出现不多的光点,而且其间的间隔也不规则。能很快发现所有的光点就能得高分。约五分钟后,十分之一的试验对象会漏掉大部分光点,十分之一的仍能够发现几乎所有的光点,剩下的则介于二者之间。
通过找寻不经常出现而且无法预测的信号,警觉测试任务进一步锻炼了注意力。要侦缉犬在空气中嗅到很少的气味分子,然后就直奔源头,希望侦缉犬做的正是这一点。耗时数小时的例行邮件检查中,侦缉犬高度专注,在鼓鼓的一大麻袋信件中即使混有一封藏有0.5克海洛因的明信片也不会逃过检查。
不懈的注意力
通过对常人以及因中风或弹伤而脑部受损的病人同时进行注意力测试和脑扫描技术,神经生物学家辨别出了一个人集中注意力时 ,大脑的哪些部分会被激活。还有一些神经生物学家研究啮齿类动物或猴子的部分大脑受损时,或给它们注射麻醉剂以阻碍或增强不同神经传递素所产生的效果时,那么它们的专注能力会发生什么变化。
一幅清晰的图象逐渐地形成了。脑额叶前部皮层的一些区域对注意力处理过程至关重要。剑桥大学实验心理学家特雷弗·罗宾斯解释说,“当任务变得困难时,(位于脑额叶的)人的脑前扣带回看起来会超时工作。”脑额叶前部皮层接受并传送输入信号到脑皮层的其它部分,由它们处理视听觉信息及语言等任务。但是只有脑额叶前部皮层负责“执行”功能,如制订战略性计划和分配认知资源等。
通过唤起脑干和基底大脑额叶的部分区域——这两处是人体的兴奋中枢,位于脑皮层之下,脑额叶前部皮层甚至会促进一些刺激性化学物质的供给,该化学物质在持续集中注意力的过程中会抵达脑皮层。脑额叶前部皮层把绝大部分神经元输入信号传给脑干和基底大脑额叶的这些区域,而整个大脑皮层是从脑干和基前脑处通过神经元接受大量的刺激,神经元会为此产生如去甲肾上腺素和乙酰胆碱这样的神经传递素。正如罗宾斯所说的,通过这样的机制,脑额叶前部皮层也许能够调节脑皮层的活动——“它或许能调节活动量大小”。
尽管脑额叶前部皮层对动物的专注能力至关重要,研究人员对其作用的确切性质仍有分歧。拉贾·帕拉素拉曼这样的神经系统科学家认为,在脑额叶前部皮层中有分开的控制注意力处理过程的中枢。帕拉素拉曼说,脑额叶前部皮层决定下步该注意什么以及必须忽略什么。
其他科学家,如罗宾斯,设想的是一种更民主的机制。它们提出注意力处理过程结合了大量不同的脑处理过程,包括如使眼睛或耳朵的注意力集中在目标上,以及对某一话题充满热情或漠不关心等。他们不将这看成中心控制系统,而看成一个经过协调的处理网络,通过不同的大脑区域运转。这些大脑区域除了脑皮层,还包括脑扁桃核(它在情感回应中发挥作用)和控制随意运动的基底神经节。
罗伯特·戴西摩纳说:“记忆在引导注意力方面〔也〕绝对起着重要和关键的作用。”他研究的是记忆和注意力之间的联系,并支持注意力处理过程的控制中心位于脑额叶前部皮层的论点。
他说,例如一个人要找一套丢失的钥匙。寻找过程发端于脑额叶前部皮层,由这里的神经元处理 “找钥匙”这个目标。这些神经元同位于大脑后部处理视觉信号的脑皮层取得联系,在脑中激活钥匙形象。为了能够把注意力集中到目前的任务上,钥匙这个形象对于已储存在记忆中的所有其它形象来说应具有优先权。戴西摩纳在猴子身上做的研究显示,脑额叶前部皮层与视觉处理皮层中的活动建立了钥匙这个形象,同时还阻止与会产生分散注意力的形象的神经元的其它联系。
戴西摩纳说:“其最终结果就是产生一种对当时重要的事情有意识的感知,而不重要的事情就无法意识到.”
虽然大多数人在某种程度上有意识地控制自己对某一特定的目标或任务需要集中多少注意力,但是,这种控制经常面临着会被多种环境刺激带走的危险。例如,驱动寻找失落的钥匙的,是找钥匙这样一个目标驱动,或者说,是一种“自上而下”的自行控制。但是来自环境的一个次要的刺激,敲门声或电话铃响声,就有可能使注意力从寻找转向房门。产生这种“自下而上”的颠倒效果的基础 ,仅仅是刺激物本身的性质和不受意识控制、本能的大脑反应,和达到某一目标毫无关系。
杰出的侦缉犬在“自上而下”的控制方面能力超群。训练就利用这一优势,让狗把寻找一个有可卡因、大麻或海洛英气味的玩具同训练员的夸奖联系起来,形成一个目标。相反,象伊万这样的狗完全是自下而上的。
伊万有点象是一个患注意力缺乏/多动症(ADHD)的病人。患有ADHD的孩子注意力很容易被分散,注意时间非常短暂,以致他们无法正常行使功能或很好地学习。在美国,有3%-5%的孩子被认为患有这种疾病,是发生率最高的国家,虽然这样的诊断经常有争议。
心不在焉
在过去的三年里,注意力缺失/过动症的研究人员开始寻找该病症的基因成分。普罗明说,研究的结果“一致且令人惊讶地表明,存在着非常实质性的基因影响,可遗传性方面有60%的概率”。人类行为特征的可遗传性与动物相比,通常要高得多,或许是因为行为特征在人类身上更容易体现出来。不过,对ADHD来说,60%的可遗传性仍相当高,因为该紊乱症只是一个综合性的诊断,其名下可能包括许多不同形式的缺陷。
随着人们对注意力处理过程以及一些伴有注意力缺陷因素的人类疾病——如注意力缺失/過動症和精神症(患者 似乎对他们关注的对象丧失了自主控制)的关注,普罗明预测,超级辑毒犬吸引神经生物学家的目光,这只是个时间问题。
普罗明说:“在行为这个层次上,人类和犬类要比人类和〔啮齿类动物〕更接近。”老鼠是人们在研究注意力处理过程中最喜欢使用的一种动物。但他指出:“犬类比〔啮齿类动物〕更容易训练。”澳大利亚的辑毒犬具有极易遗传的高度注意力,也许能帮助鉴别许多潜伏于注意力处理过程之下的基因。
但是钱伯尼斯说,到目前为止,还没有人敲她的门,提出用狗做研究。这并不是说墨尔本的这些超级侦缉犬不再很有用。在它们服务的第一年,就查获了1500例毒品案,包括藏在一个轮船集装箱内的5吨大麻 ,以及藏在避孕套中吞入走私者胃里的量小一些的毒品。
Further Readings
The Age of Cloning
By J. Madeleine Nash
Even now, a week after news of the achievement first flew around the globe, traces of astonishment linger in the air like a contrail. The landmark paper published late last week in the journal Nature confirmed what the headlines had been screaming for days: researchers at the Roslin Institute near Edinburgh, Scotland, had indeed pulled off what many experts thought might be a scientific impossibility. From a cell in an adult ewe's mammary gland, embryologist Ian Wilmut and his colleagues managed to create a frisky lamb named Dolly (with apologies to Ms. Parton), scoring an advance in reproductive technology as unsettling as it was startling. Unlike offspring produced in the usual fashion, Dolly does not merely take after her biological mother. She is a carbon copy, a laboratory counterfeit so exact that she is in essence her mother's identical twin.
What enabled the Scottish team to succeed where so many others have failed was a trick so ingenious, yet so simple, that any skilled laboratory technician should be able to master it - and therein lies both the beauty and the danger: once Wilmut and his colleagues figured out how to cross that biological barrier, they ensured that others would follow. And although the Roslin researchers had to struggle for more than 10 years to achieve their breakthrough, it took political and religious leaders around the world no time at all to grasp its import: if scientists can clone sheep, they can probably clone people too.
Without question, this exotic form of reproductive engineering could become an extremely useful tool. The ability to clone adult mammals, in particular, opens up myriad exciting possibilities, from propagating endangered animal species to producing replacement organs for transplant patients. Agriculture stands to benefit as well. Dairy farmers, for example, could clone their champion cows, making it possible to produce more milk from smaller herds. Sheep ranchers could do the same with their top lamb and wool producers.
But it's also easy to imagine the technology being misused, and as news from Roslin spread, apocalyptic scenarios proliferated. Journalists wrote seriously about the possibility of virgin births, resurrecting the dead and women giving birth to themselves. On the front page of the New York Times, a cell biologist from Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, named Ursula Goodenough quipped that if cloning were perfected, "there'd be no need for men."
Scientists have long dreamed of doing what the Roslin team did. After all, if starfish and other invertebrates can practice asexual reproduction, why can't it be extended to the rest of the animal kingdom? In the 1980s, developmental biologists in Philadelphia at what is now Allegheny University of the Health Sciences came tantalizingly close. From the red blood cells of an adult frog, they raised a crop of lively tadpoles. These tadpoles were impressive creatures, remembers University of Minnesota cell biologist Robert McKinnell, who followed the work closely. "They swam and ate and developed beautiful eyes and hind limbs," he says. But then, halfway through metamorphosis, they died.
Scientists who have focused their cloning efforts on more forgiving embryonic tissue have met with greater success. A simple approach, called twinning (literally splitting embryos in half), is commonly practiced in the cattle industry. Coaxing surrogate cells to accept foreign DNA is a bit trickier. In 1952 researchers in Pennsylvania successfully cloned a live frog from an embryonic cell. Three decades later, researchers were learning to do the same with such mammal as sheep and calve. "What's new," observes University of Wisconsin animal scientist Neal First, "is not cloning mammals. It's cloning mammals from cells that are not embryonic."
Embryo cells are infinitely easier to work with because they are, in the jargon of cell biologists, largely "undifferentiated". That is, they have not yet undergone the progressive changes that turn cells into skin, muscles, hair, brain and so on. An undifferentiated cell can give rise to all the other cells in the body, say scientists, because it is capable of activating any gene on any chromosome. But as development progresses, differentiation alters the way DNA - the double-stranded molecule that makes up genes - folds up inside the nucleus of a cell. Along with other structural changes, folding helps make vast stretches of DNA inaccessible, ensuring that genes in adult cells do not turn on at the wrong time or in the wrong tissue.
The disadvantage of embryonic cloning is that you don't know what you are getting. With adult-cell cloning, you can wait to see how well an individual turns out before deciding to clone it. Cloning also has the potential to make genetic engineering more efficient. Once you produce an animal with a desired trait - a pig with a human immune system, perhaps - you could make many copies.
In recent years, some scientists have speculated that the changes wrought by differentiation might be irreversible, in which case cloning an adult mammal would be biologically impossible. The birth of Dolly not only proves them wrong but also suggests that the difficulty scientists have had cloning adult cells may have less to do with biology than with technique.
To create Dolly, the Roslin team concentrated on arresting the cell cycle - the series of choreographed steps all cells go through in the process of dividing. In Dolly's case, the cells the scientists wanted to clone came from the udder of a pregnant sheep. To stop them from dividing, researchers starved the cells of nutrients for a week. In response, the cells fell into a slumbering state that resembled deep hibernation.
At this point, Wilmut and his colleagues switched to a mainstream cloning technique known as nuclear transfer. First they removed the nucleus of an unfertilized egg, or oocyte, while leaving the surrounding cytoplasm intact. Then they placed the egg next to the nucleus of a quiescent donor cell and applied gentle pulses of electricity. These pulses prompted the egg to accept the new nucleus - and all the DNA it contained - as though it were its own. They also triggered a burst of bio-chemical activity, jump-starting the process of cell division. A week later, the embryo that had already started growing into Dolly was implanted in the uterus of surrogate ewe.
An inkling that this approach might work, says Wilmut, came from the success his team experienced in producing live lambs from embryonic clones. "Could we do it again with an adult cell?" wondered Wilmut, a reserved, self-deprecating man who likes gardening, hiking in the highlands and drinking good single-malt Scotch (but who was practical enough to file for a patent before he went public).
It was a high-risk project, and in the beginning Wilmut proceeded with great secrecy, limiting his core team to four scientists failed far more often than they succeeded. Out of 277 tries, the researchers eventually produced only 29 embryos that survived longer than six days. Of these, all died before birth except Dolly, whose historic entry into the world was witnessed by a handful of researchers and a veterinarian.
Rumors that something had happened in Roslin, a small village in the green, rolling hills just south of Edinburgh, started circulating in scientific circles a few weeks ago. It was only last week, when the rumors were confirmed and the details of the experiment revealed, that the real excitement erupted. Cell biologists, like everybody else, were struck by the simple boldness of the experiment. But what intrigued them even more was what it suggested about how cells work.
Many scientists had suspected that the key to getting a donor cell and egg to dance together was synchronicity - getting them started on the same foot. Normal eggs and sperm don't have that problem; they come pre-divided, ready to combine. An adult cell, though, with its full complement of genes, has to be coaxed into entering an embryonic state. That is probably what Wilmut did by putting the donor cell to sleep, says Colin Stewart, an embryologist at the U.S. National Cancer Institute. Somehow, in ways scientists have yet to understand, this procedure seems to have reprogrammed the DNA of the donor cell. Thus when reawakened by the Roslin team, it was able to orchestrate the production of all the cells needed to make up Dolly's body.
Like most scientists who score major breakthroughs, Wilmut and his colleagues have raised more questions than they have answered. Among the most pressing are questions about Dolly's health. She is seven months old and appears to be perfectly fine, but no one knows if she will develop problems later on. For one thing, it is possible that Dolly may not live as long as other sheep. After all, observes NCI's Stewart, "she came from a six-year-old cell. Will she exhibit signs of aging prematurely?" In addition, as the high rate of spontaneous abortion suggests, cloning sometimes damages DNA. As a result, Dolly could develop any number of diseases that could shorten her life.
Indeed, cloning an adult mammal is still a difficult, cumbersome business - so much so that even agricultural and biomedical applications of the technology could be years away. PPL therapeutics, the small biotechnical firm based in Edinburgh that provided a third of the funding to create Dolly, has its eye on the pharmaceutical market. Cloning, says PPL's managing director Ron James, could provide an efficient way of creating flocks of sheep that have been genetically engineered to produce mild laced with valuable enzymes and drugs. Among the pharmaceuticals PPL is looking at is a potential treatment for cystic fibrosis.
Nobody at Roslin or PPL is talking about cloning humans. Even if they were, their procedure is obviously not practical - not as long as dozens of surrogates need to be impregnated for each successful birth. And that is probably a good thing, because it gives the public time to find ways to prevent abuses without blocking scientific progress. If the policymakers succeed, and if their guidelines win international acceptance, it may take a lot longer than the editorial writers and talk-show hosts think before a human clone emerges - even from the shadows of some offshore renegade lab. "How long?" asks PPL's James. "Hopefully, an eternity."
- With reporting by Helen Gibson/Roslin and Dick Thompson/Washington
