1.1 What Is a Word
Before we attempt (尝试)any detailed discussion(具体讨论), it is necessary to (有必要做什么)clarify(阐明澄清)some basic concepts(基本概念) concerning words and vocabulary. The term word(词语word) is an elusive(难以捉摸) notion(概念), which demands(需要) careful consideration(关注) at the outset(开始). The relation between sound and meaning,声音和意义之间的关系 between sound and form, 声音和形式之间关系and between words and vocabulary 词语和词汇之间的关系requires(需要) some discussion as well(同样). In addition, we shall consider(注意)a few commonly recognized criteria(共同规则,标准) for vocabulary classification(词汇分类)and study (研究)each class(每类)of words to some extent (一定程度上)in this chapter.(并且在本章一定程度上研究每类词语)
1.1What is a word?
This question has occupied(占据) the attention of linguists(语言学家) for ages. Although numerous(众多的,许多的) definitions(定义) have been suggested, none of them seem to be perfect. Scholars(学者) still do not agree on the definition of the word.
When we talk about a word, we tend to(有...倾向用视觉角度去考虑) think in visual terms. In this line(在这个角度) a word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper. As defined in terms of spoken language, a word is viewed as a sound or combination(集合体) of sounds which are made voluntarily with human vocal equipment(由一个人的发音器官自由的发出的). According to semanticists(语义学者), a word is a unit of meaning(一个词是一个意义单位). Grammarians(语法学家), however, insist that a word be a free form(自由形式) that can function(作用) in a sentence, etc. To sum up, the definition of a word comprises the following points:
1) a minimal free form of a language;一个最小的自由形态
2) A sound unity;一个发音的集合体
3) A unit of meaning;一个意义单位
4) A form that can function alone in a sentence.能独自影响句子的形式。
Therefore, we can say that ‘a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function’. (词语是语言最小的自由形式,拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用)
Words can be simple and complex(单词或者合成词), yet all must comply with these criteria.标准 Man and five are simple, but they each have sound, meaning and syntactic function句法意义, and each can be used alone in a sentence. Naturally they are words. There are words which are complex such as (mis for tune 不幸)and (man age ment). Both are polysyllabic多音节的 words and can function as ‘subject主语’, ‘object宾语’ and ‘predictive预示性词语’ in a sentence. Though misfortune can be further divided as(进一步分成) mis- and fortune, the former 前者cannot stand alone as a word. Similarly, management can be broken down as 可以分成manage and -ment, the latter后者 cannot be used freely, either. Blackmail can be separated into可以分成 black and mail, and both can work as independent units in a sentence, the meaning of each, however, is by no means绝不是 the combination of the two两个部分的组合. Black is a color(colour), opposite to ‘white’, and mail denotes指 ‘something sent by post邮局’, yet然而 when they are put together, the combined form (组合形式)means ‘compel, compulsion,强迫 to make payment or action in a return for concealment of discreditable secrets etc.(利用不光彩的秘密要人送钱或行动作为答复)’ Hence (因此,从此,以后)blackmail is a different word(COD).
1.2 Sound and Meaning
A word is a symbol that stands for(代表) something else in the world世界上其他的事物. Each of the world’s cultures has come to agree that certain sounds will represent certain persons, things, places, properties特性, processes过程 and activities行动 outside the language system. This symbolic connection联系 is almost always arbitrary(随意的主观的), and there is ‘no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself(在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系)’ (Lodwing and Barrett 1973). A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. It is only symbolic. The relationship between them is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to the animal with this cluster of sounds. In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. Woman, for example, becomes ‘Frau’ in German, ‘femme’ in French and ‘funu’ in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound is used to mean meet, meat, mete. Knight and night骑士, though denothing entirely完全的 different things, yet have the same sound.
1.3 Sound and Form
It is generally agreed that通常认为 the written form of a natural language 自然语言的书写形式is the written record of the oral form口语形式的书写记录. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form.自然书写形式 In other words, the sound should be similar to the form发音和形式相一致. This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. (也就是)Old English. The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. With the development of the language, more and more differences occur发生出现存在 between the two. The internal reason(内因) for this is that the English alphabet was adopted(被收入) from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter单独的 to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.
Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly 迅速的立即的than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart. During the last five hundred years, though the sounds of speech have changed considerably非常地,很,颇, there have been no corresponding相应的 changes of spelling.
A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes抄写员. In the early days the spelling differences did not matter very much as people were not so used to seeing words in print, and the spelling was not fixed as不像如今这么固定 it is today. As a result, no one was quite sure how some English words should be spelled. Sometimes, people deliberately 故意的changed spelling of words either或者 to make a line even or for easier recognition. Before the printing press 印刷术was brought to 被传到England, everything was written by hand. Those scribes, who made a living 生存by writing for other people often worked in haste 匆忙to meet the needs of 应付the King, Church主教, and merchants商人. One problem was that several letters 字母written with short 简短vertical垂直的 strokes 画笔such as i,u,v,m,w and n looked all alike. Consequently, 因此their handwriting caused misunderstanding. To solve the problem in prat, they changed the letter u to o when it came before m, n, or v.(把mnv之前的u改成o) This is how sum, cum, wuman, wunder, munk came to be written as some, come, woman, wonder, monk. At some point, too, the scribes seem to have decided that no English word should end in u or v. Thus, in time, an e was added to such words as live, have, due, and true but not pronounced(Deighton 1979).
In the late 1500, printing became well established变得很普遍. It helped to freeze the spelling of words固定单词的瓶邪, The standardization标准化 makes spelling sacred不容改变. Dictionaries did their share in stopping spelling changes. 字典在拼写终结中得到好处Meanwhile, sounds continued to change as usual, thus bringing more differences.
Finally comes the borrowing借词来了, which is an important channel of 重要途径enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other languages, it borrowed spelling as well. The early borrowings were assimilated通化 and the later ones, however, do not conform 顺从to the rules of English pronunciation and spelling, e.g. Stimulus(L), denouement(F), fiesta(Sp), eureka(Gr),and kimono(Jap).
The written form of English is, therefore, an imperfect repreesentation of the spoken form. From time to time in history,历史上一次又一次 some British and American scholars have made efforts 尝试努力to reform 改革the English spelling, but with little success不成功. In spite of the differences尽管差别, at least eighty percent of the English words fit consistent一致 spelling patterns. And even those spellings that appear to be irregular不规则 may have more regularity and usefulness用处 than we realize. In such words as hymn赞歌, condemn谴责, bomb, for example, the last letter of each is silent. But when these words are extended into longer ones, the silent letters become audible听得见的: hymnal赞美诗的, condemnation and bombard. This is a general rule.这是规律。
1.4 Vocabulary
All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. The term术语‘vocabulary’ is used in different senses地方. Not only can it refer to代表 the total number of the words in a language一种语言中的的单词数, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period, e.g. Old English vocabulary, Middle English vocabulary and Modern English vocabulary. We also use it to refer to归功于 all the words of a given dialect所有特定方言的词汇, a given book, a given discipline 一种学术的词汇and the words possessed拥有 by an individual person一个人拥有的词汇. English is one of the world’s highly developed languages. Naturally the vocabulary自然词汇 is one of the largest and richest最大最丰富的. The general estimate 预估of the present-day English vocabulary is over one million words. 100万
1.5 Classification of Words
The English vocabulary consists of words of all kinds. They can be classified by different criteria and for different purposes. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.
1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
The basic word stock is the foundation积累 of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute 组成a small percentage of占英语词汇很小的一部分 the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics特征.
1. All national character. 所有名族的特征
Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language. They include words relating to the following respects:包含和下面相关的方面
Natural phenomena自然现象: rain, snow, fire, water, sun, moon, spring, summer, wind, hill;
Human body and relations亲属: head, foot, hand, face, father, mother, brother, sister, son, daughter;
Names of plants and animals: oak橡树, pine松树, grass, pear梨, apple, tree, horse, cow牛, sheep, cat, dog, chicken;
Action, size, domain范围, state: come, go, eat, hear, beat打, carry, good, evil, old, young, hot, cold, heavy, white, black;
Numerals数词, pronouns代词, prepositions介词, conjunctions连接词: one, ten, hundred, I, you, your, who, in, out, under, and, but, till, as如同.
These words cannot be avoided避免 by any speaker of English, irrespective不考虑无关的 of class origin, education, profession, geographical regions地理的, culture, etc.
2. Stability.稳定性 Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries, e.g. Man, fire, mountain, water, sun, moon. As they denote 表示只是the commonest things普遍事物 necessary to life, they are likely to remain 保持unchanged. Stability, however, is only relative. 稳定性只是相对的Actually, the basic word stock has been undergoing some changes. Words like arrow弓 bow箭,, chariot马车, knight,骑士 which were common in the past, have now moved out of the word stock词库 whereas such words as electricity, machine, car, plane, computer, radio, television, which denote new things and modern way of life, have entered the stock. But this change is slow. There are many more words joining in than dropping out清除.
3. Productivity生产力. Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words 词根or monosyllabic单音节 words. They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes前缀, e.g. Foot: footage片段, football, footpath人行道, footer页脚, footfall, footed, footloose, footling, footman, footing, footprint and many others. In the same way, dog is the father of doglike, doghood, dogcart, dog-cheap, dog-ear, dog-fall, dogfight, doghole, dogpaddle, dogsleep, to name just a few.
4. Polysemy.意义分歧
Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undergone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous多义的. One example will suffice足够有能力的 for illustration证明. The verb take may mean: to move or carry from one place to another; to remove or use without permission or by mistake; to seize or capture; to get for oneslef; to get hold of (something) with the hands; to be willing to accept; to bear or endure; to test or measure; to write down; to have the intended effect or to work successfully(LDCE).
5. Collocability搭配组合. Many words of the basic word stock enter quite a number of set expressions习惯用法, idiomatic usages谚语, proverbial sayings and the like. Instances are numerous例子是很多的. Take heart for example: a change of heart变心; after one’s heart不在心上; a heart of gold; at heart; break one’s heart; cross one’s heart; cry one’s heart out; eat one’s heart out; have one’s heart in one’s mouth心在嗓子眼; heart and hand; heart and soul; One’s heart sinks within one心在上下浮动; take something to heart挂心; wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve全; with all one’s heart 心全意and so on.
Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics特征. Pronouns and numerals代数和数词 enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and colllcability. Therefore, ‘all national character’ is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.
Words, void of the stated characteristics, do not belong to the common core of the language. They include the following:
没有上面描述特征的词,不属于语言的正常核心。它们包括下面:
1. Terminology术语 consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines 学科and academic学术 areas as in medicine: photoscanning光扫描, hepatitis肝炎, indigestion消化不良, penicillin青霉素; in mathematics: algebra代数, trigonometry三角学, calculus微积分; in music: symphony交响乐, orchestra管弦乐, sonata奏鸣曲, concerto协奏曲; in education: audiovisual视听教学, megauniversity自修大学, microteaching微型教学, etc.
2. Jargon行话 refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades商业 and professions communicate among themselves such as in business: bottom line底线 for ‘inescapable implication不可逃避的, unavoidable result无法避免的结果, ultimate version最终版本’, ballpark figures 垒球数字for ‘estimate估计’, bargaining chips讨价碎片 for ‘an advantage held by any of the parties in a negotiation’; in horse-racing: hold him back for ‘prevent a horse from winning’. Hold him in for’ force a horse to run behind at the beginning of a race so as to reserve speed for the finish’; in medicine: paranoid多疑 for ‘suspicious, worried’, persona for ‘mannerism’, hypo皮下注射器 for ‘hypodermic syringe’; in warfare: buster for ‘bomb’. Benerally speaking总体来说, people outside the circle have difficulty in understanding such words.
3. Slang 俚语粗话belongs to the sub-standard标准通用语言 language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant (shoptalk of any sub-group), jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population. Certain words are labeled ’slang’ not because of their appearance or pronunciation but because of their usage. Dough and bread, for instance, are standard when they are used as food terms but slang in the sense of ‘money’. Similarly, grass and pot have standard or formal use meaning, respectively, i.e.”type of plant life’ and ‘ cooking utensil’, but slang use meaning ‘marijuana’. Such words as beaver (girl), smoky, bear (police), catch (talk to), holler (call), Roger (understand), X-rays (radar) are all slang words (Reader’s Digest 1983). The concept ‘head’ can be referred to by nut, dome, upper, bean, bolck and so on; in the same way, the meaning of ‘drunk’ can be expressed in as many terms as over three hundred such as elevated, merry, jolly, comfortable, boiled, grassy, tight, knocked out, blue-eyed, fried, paralyzed, pickled, stiff, stunned(Qin 1986)
These examples indicate that much of the slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang enjoys popular use. Almost everyone uses some slang sometimes, and some people use a lot of slang often. Those who don’t go to offices or seldom find themselves in formal situations, and those who spend more time with close friends than business associates and mere acquaintances, use the most slang, because slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive. As some people claim, slang avoids pretensions. It is ‘language that rolls up its sleeves’ and gets to work.
4. 黑话Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups, and outsiders can hardly understand it, e. G. Can-opener (all-purpose key), dip (pick-pocket), persuader (dagger).
5. 方言词Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. For example, beauty(AusE=ecellent, great), chook(AusE=chicken), cocky(Ause= small farmer), station(AusE=ranch); auld (ScotE=old), bluid(ScotE=blood), coo(ScotE=cow), hame(ScotE=home), lough(IrE=lake), bog(IrE=swamp).
6. 古语Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. They are found mainly in older poems, legal documents and religious writing or speech. Here are some examples: thou(you), ye(plural you), thee(objective you), wilt(will), brethren (brother), troth(pledge), quoth(said), aught(anything), hereof (of this, concerning this), therefrom(from that or there), wherein (in what).
7. 新词Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. Here are some examples from 12,000 WORDS:
Microelectronics= the branch of electronics dealing with integrated circuits
Futurology= a study that deals with future possibilities based on current trends
AIDS= acquired immune deficiency syndrome
E-mail= electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems
Internet=an international computer network linking both business and private users
Freak out = withdraw from reality and society esp. By taking drugs.
1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words内容词和功能词
By notion根据概念, words can be grouped into content words and functional words.词语可以分成内容词和功能词 Content words denote显示 clear notions内容词显示清除的概念 and thus are known as notional words则被认为概念词. They include nouns名词, verbs动词, adjectives形容词, adverbs副词 and numerals数词, which denote objects物体, phenomena现象, action动作, quality品质, state状态, degree程度, quantity数量,etc. Earth, cloud, run, walk, bright, dark, never, frequently, five, December are all content words.
Functional words do not have notions of their own.功能词没有他们自己的概念 Therefore, they are also called empty words.空词 As their chief function主要功能 is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words.他们被认为结构次 Prepositions介词, conjunctions连词, auxiliaries辅助词 and articles冠词 belong to this category.这一类 Examples are on, of, upon, and , but, do (does, did), be(am, are were, is), a , the and others.
Content words, which constitute the main body of the English vocabulary, are numerous, and the number is ever growing whereas functional words, which make up a very small number of the vocabulary, remain stable. However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words. According to Stuart Robertson, et al (1957), the nine functional words, namely, and, be, have, it, of, the, to, will, you assume one fourth of the task of expression in English. This is justified by the following examples. Of the total of twenty-seven words, only nine are content words and all the rest are functional words.
[1]It is fun to play with children.
[2] It is certain that they have forgotten the address.
[3]The more I see the film, the more I like it.
1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words本地词和外来词
As far as the origins of the words are concerned, English words can be classified into native words and borrowed words. Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words. Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000to 60,000, but they form the mainstream fo the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language. Therefore, what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features:
1. Neutral in style.风格中心 Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically在文体上 specific.他们没有独特的特点 This can be illustrated by a comparison between synonyms可以在同义词的比较中看出.
Begin(E)--commence(F)
Brotherly(E)-fraternal(F)
Kingly(E)-royal(F)-regal(L)
Rise(E)-mount(F)-ascend(L)
Words marked E are native words本地词 and the rest are all borrowed. Stylistically风格上, natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary 文学上and learned, thus appropriate in formal style.
2. Frequent in use频繁使用. Native words 本地词are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion 介词of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number. The percentage of native words in use runs usually as high as 70 to 90 percent. This figure can be verified证实 by the following data:
Author or Book Native Foreign
Spenser 86% 14%
Shakespeare 90% 10%
King James Bible 94% 6%
Milton 81% 19%
Addison 82% 18%
Swift 75% 25%
Pope 80% 20%
Jjohnson 72% 28%
Hume 73% 27%
Gibbon 70% 30%
Macaulay 75% 25%
Tennyson 88% 12%
S. Robertson(rev. ) 1957:174
These data do not apply to不能用于 all usage situations and are open to variation变化变异,开发 in academic fields 学术领域and sciences where many more words of French, Latin or Greek 希腊origin are used.
Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed works or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. English is a heavy borrower and has adopted words from all other major languages of the world. It is estimated that 据估计English borrowings constitute 组成80 percent of the modern English vocabulary. As is stated in Encyclopedia Americana百科全书美国历史, “The English language has vast debts. In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed’(1980 Vol. 10, p.423). The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity 不同成分of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings. Baugh (1978)talks of the English vocabulary as ‘ cosmopolitan vocabulary’, which reveals the true nature of the English vocabulary. According to the degree of assimilation同化 and manner风格 of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words借词 under four classes.分成四类
1. Denizens. 居民词
Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into 融入the English language. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of Pronunciation and spelling. Some of the words are so successfully assimilated that only trained professionals may be aware of their origin. Words of this group are early borrowings from Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavians, e.g. Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa(L), shift from skipta(ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier(F), pork from porc(F).
2. Aliens. 侨语
Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.侨语是保留原始发音和拼写的借贷 These words are immediately recognis able as foreign in origin. They are words like decor(F), blitzkrieg(G), kowtow(CH), bazaar(Per), rajah(Hin), status quo(L), intermezzo(IT), emir (Arab), to name a few.
3. Translation-loans. 翻译借词
Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language. Such words can also be subdivided.
Words translated according to the meaning
Mother tongue from lingua materna(L)
Long time no see from haojiumeijian(CH)
Surplus value from Mehrwert(G)
Masterpiece from Meisterstuck(G)
Black humour from humour noir(F)
Words translated according to the sound
Kulak from kyrak(Russ)
Ketchup from ke-tsiap(CH dial)
Lama from lama (Tib)
Tea from t’e (CH dial)
4. Semantic-loans. 意义借词
Words of this cateory are not borrowed with reference to eht form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language. Take the word dream for instance. The word originally meant ‘joy’ and ‘music’, and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse挪威语. Pioneer once signifying ‘explorer’ only or ‘person doing pioneering work’ has now taken on the new meaning of ‘ a member of the Young Pioneer’ from Russian俄罗斯. The meaning ‘stupid’ of the word dumb comes from the German word dumm. Likewise, fresh has adopted the meaning of impertinent,无礼的 sassy, cheeky’ under the influence of the German word frech.