
ethnocentric, polycentric, regiocentric,
and geocentric management orientations.
The premise of an ethnocentric orientation is
that home country products and management
processes are superior. An ethnocentric
company that neither sources inputs from,
nor seeks market opportunities in, the world
outside the home country is a domestic
company. A company that does business
abroad while still presuming the superiority
of the home country may be classified as an
international company. Such a company
relies on an extension strategy whereby it
would export, without adaptation, products
designed for the domestic market.
The polycentric orientation that
predominates at a multinational company
leads to a view of the world in which each
country market is different from the others. www.docin.comThe marketing mix in a polycentric,
multinational company is adapted by local
country managers operating with a high
degree of autonomy.
Managers who are regiocentric
or geocentric
in their orientations recognize both
similarities and differences in world markets.
Markets opportunities are pursued using
both extension and adaptation strategies.
The regiocentric and geocentric orientations
are characteristic of global or transnational
companies.
2. What are some major trends in the world
that will affect marketing?
There are numerous driving forces affecting
global integration and global marketing.
These include: technology, regional
economic agreements, market needs and
wants, transportation and communications www.docin.comimprovements, rising product development
costs, quality issues and the growth of
transitional/global companies.
3.Explain the differences among a market
allocation economic system, a command
allocation system, and a mixed system.
A market allocation economic system relies
on consumer-driven forces of supply and
demand to allocate resources. The
elements of the marketing mix are important
strategic variables that companies use to
attract attention to their product and service
offerings.
In a command allocation system, the state
decides what goods will be produced and
what enterprises will produce them.
Production targets are also set by the state.
No “pure” market or command allocation
system exists in the world today. www.docin.com
5.Describe the similarities and differences
among a free trade area, a customs union, a
common market, and an economic union.
Give an example of each.
All four forms of economic integration
eliminate tariffs and quotas among member
nations.
customs unions, common markets, and
economic unions all have common external
tariff and quota systems.
Common markets and economic unions
provide for reducing or eliminated
restrictions on people, money, and other
factors.
An economic union is the most highly
evolved form of integration, calling for
harmonization of economic policies and www.docin.cominstitutions.
Examples include: free trade area – NAFTA;
customs union – EU and Turkey; common
market Central American Common Market
(CACM); economic union – EU.
7.What is the difference between a
low-context culture and a high-context
culture? Give an example of a country
that is an example of each type, and
provide evidence for your answer. How
does this apply to marketing?
In a low context culture, messages are
explicit; words carry most of the
information in communication.
In a high-context culture, less information
is contained in the verbal part of the
message. www.docin.com
Advertising copy in different countries
often reflects this difference.
When Infinite (Japan) was first
introduced in the US, the commercials
showed fields and rocks but no car. The
commercials failed in the US where more
emphasis is placed in print copy on
describing the car or conveying an image in
TV ads.
8.
Briefly describe some of the differences
that relate to marketing between the legal
environment of a country that embraces
common law as opposed to a country that
observes civil law.
Common-law countries follow the
Anglo-Saxon tradition of relying on
precedent established by past judicial
decisions. www.docin.comCivil–law countries look to codes as the
sources of authority. Under civil law the
judicial system is divided into civil,
commercial and criminal law thus
commercial law has its own administrative
structure.
In code-law countries, intellectual property
rights must be registered whereas in
common-law countries, some –such as
trademarks but not patents – are established
by prior use.
9.What is the difference between existing,
latent, and incipient demand? How might
these differences affect the design of a
marketing research project?
A latent market is, in essence, an
undiscovered segment. It is a market in
which demand would materialize if an www.docin.comappropriate product were available.
Incipient demand is demand that will emerge
if a particular economic technological,
political or sociocultural trend continues.
If a company offers a product before the
trend has taken root, it will have little market
response.
Drucker’s view of research on the latent
demand for a fax machine is a good
example of how a project can be effected.
If a researcher asked “Would you buy a
telephone accessory that cost upward of
$1500 and enables you to send, for $1 per
page, the same letter the post office delivers
for $.25?” The respondent is most likely to
answer “no” yet look how fax machines
have become a part of our businesses.
10.What is a global market segment? Pick
a market that you know something about, www.docin.comand describe the global segments for this
market.
Global market segmentation is the process of
dividing the world into distinct subsets of
customers that behave in the same way or
have similar needs. Or as one author put it,
it is “the process of identifying specific
segments – whether they be country groups
or individual consumer groups – of potential
customers with homogeneous attributes who
are likely to exhibit similar buying behavior.
Teenagers are a good example of a global
market segment. No matter where you go
in the world, teens are wearing jeans, eating
at a McDonald’s, listening to the same music
and smoking.
11.Identify the major geographic and
demographic segments in global markets.
www.docin.comGeographic segmentation is dividing the
world into geographic subsets. The
advantage is proximity: markets in
geographic segments are closer to each other
and easier to visit. However, just because the
markets are in the same geographic area
does not meant that they are similar. The
major geographic markets are: Western
Europe, Eastern and Central Europe, North
America, Asia-Pacific, Oceania, Latin
America, Middle East and Africa.
Demographic segmentation is based on
measurable characteristics of population
such as age, gender, income, education and
occupation.
12.What are the alternative tools or
strategies for expanding internationally?
What are the major advantages and
disadvantages of each strategy?
www.docin.comLicensing
Advantages:
Low-cost entry alternative.
Allows licensor to circumvent tariffs,
quotas, or similar export barriers
discussed in Chapter 8.
Limits political risk and risk of
expropriation.
Disadvantages:
A limited form of participation;
licensor generally has no control
over marketing program associated
with product produced under
license.
Financial upside limited by royalty
rate.
Licensees can become competitors.
Joint ventures
Advantages: www.docin.com Allows for sharing of risk and
combining complementary strengths,
especially local market knowledge
of target market partner.
May be the entry mode most
strongly supported by target market
government.
Disadvantages:
Corporate cultures and other
interests of foreign partner and local
partner may clash.
Lack of mutual understanding
frequently leads to “divorce.”
Sharing means less control than in
100 percent ownership.
Direct Investment/Acquisition/Ownership
Advantages:
Acquisition can profit instant market
access.
Provides opportunities for www.docin.comtechnology transfer to parent.
Disadvantages:
Problems may arise from efforts to
integrate acquisitions into parent
company.
Requires greatest commitment of
capital and managerial effort.
Investment and ownership may
evoke suspicion about foreign
company exploitation. American
companies in particular may be
targets of accusations about
“cultural imperialism.” Political
risk is higher compared with other
entry modes.
13.What are the differences among
companies at international, multinational,
global, and transnational stages of
development? Find examples of companies
that fit the characteristics of each of these www.docin.comtypes.
The key differences can be described in
terms of the following dimensions:
organizational model; view of world,
orientation, configuration of key assets, role
of country units, and development and
diffusion of knowledge.
The organization model for an international
company is that of a coordinated federation
in which the center/headquarters is viewed
as the source of expertise and competencies.
The international company views the world
as extension markets in which products
developed for the home country are sold
without adaptation. This approach reflects
an ethnocentric orientation. Key core
assets are centralized in the home country,
while other assets are dispersed in country
markets. The role of country units is to www.docin.comadapt and leverage competencies when
possible. Knowledge is created at the
center and transferred to country units.
A multinational company is based on an
organization model of a decentralized
federation; Each national market is viewed
as unique; This approach reflects a
polycentric orientation in which key assets
are decentralized and self-sufficient. The
role of country units is to exploit local
opportunities; indeed, one of the strengths of
the multinational is its responsiveness.
However, because knowledge tends to be
retained by the autonomous operating units,
leverage opportunities are limited.
The organizational model for a global
company is a centralized hub. Global
companies view the world in terms of either
global markets or global resources. Key www.docin.comassets are located in the home country
except those pertaining to marketing or
sourcing. Knowledge about marketing or
sourcing is developed jointly by
headquarters and country units and is
shared.
A transnational company is an integrated
network that views the world in terms of
both markets and resources. This
geocentric view is operationalized by
dispersing specialized key assets around the
world but keeping them interdependent.
Country units are expected to make
contributions to the company worldwide;
company knowledge about markets and
resources is developed jointly and shared.
The following are some companies that
illustrate the different stages:
Stage 2: FedEx; Volvo www.docin.com Stage 3: Citicorp (moving to stage 4);
Cap Gemini (moving to stage 4)
Stage 4: Harley-Davidson; BMW;
Mercedes-Benz; Coca-Cola; Swatch
Stage 5: Toyota; Honda; Nestle
14.Which strategic options for market entry
or expansion would a small company be
likely to pursue? A large company?
Generally, a small company with limited
assets and personnel would likely select
exporting or licensing. A large company
with available resources can select any
option from exporting to company-owned
subsidiaries.
Because of limited resources, a small
company may sell their existing products in
a foreign country through the use of an
external export organization. It basically www.docin.com“farms” the problem out to an organization
with experience in exporting. Another
alternative is licensing, a contractual
arrangement whereby one company (the
small company in this example) makes an
asset available to company in another
country in exchange for royalties, license
fees or some other form of compensation.
A large company with resources has several
options. They may establish and monitor an
in-house export department with have direct
representation in the new country; they may
enter a joint venture agreement or they may
establish a subsidiary. Each of these
alternatives is progressively more expensive
and riskier.
15.What are the major attributes that
distinguish GSPs from traditional joint
ventures? www.docin.com
According to Perlmutter and Heenan, in a
true GSP:
Two or more companies develop
long-term strategies for achieving world
leadership;
The relationship is reciprocal;
Vision and efforts are truly global;
Lateral transfer of resources is essential;
Participants continue to compete as
distinct entities in markets not included
in the agreement.
16.What six basic factors affect the success
of GSPs?
The factors discussed in the chapter include
the following:
Mission that creates win-win situation;
One company may form different GSPs www.docin.comwith various partners; strategy must be
though out in advance;
Partners must be on equal footing in
matters of governance;
Differences in corporate cultures must
be explicitly recognized and managed
accordingly. Some conflict is to be
expected;
Innovative designs (matrix etc.) may be
required;
Appropriate decision-making processes
must be adopted.
17.How can a company measure its
competitive advantage? How does a firm
know if it is gaining or losing competitive
advantage?
Competitive advantage is “a match between
a firm’s distinctive competencies and the
factors critical for success within its
industry.” When a company achieves this www.docin.commatch, it will deliver superior perceived
value relative to competitors. This
suggests that, first of all, a company must
have a clear understanding of three things:
its distinctive competencies, the industry in
which it competes, and the overall business
environment. If a firm’s distinctive
competencies allow it to attain the low-cost
position in its industry, it cannot afford to
lose ground to rivals seeking to leapfrog it.
If a company competes via differentiation, it
must be continually innovative to maintain
or enhance the perceived uniqueness of its
products. Beyond this, it is necessary for a
company to assess customer perceptions.
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