
1.Introduction
Engineering is concerned with understanding and controlling the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of humankind. Control system engineers are concerned with understanding and controlling segments of their environment, to provide useful products for society. Control engineering is based on the foundations of feedback theory and linear system analysis. It is not limited to any engineering discipline but is equally applicable to aeronautical, chemical, mechanical, environmental, civil, and electrical engineering.
A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system configuration that will provide a desired system response. The study of control systems involves not so much the development of new engineering components or machines, but taking combinations of existing hardware to achieve a predetermined goal. Control systems operate in almost every aspect of human activity, including walking, talking, and handling objects. In addition, control system exist that require no human interaction, such as aircraft automatic pilots and automobile cruise control systems.
In dealing with control systems, particular engineering control systems, we will deal with a variety of components, indicating that the subject is an interdisciplinary one. The control engineer needs a working knowledge of mechanics, electronics, electrical machines, fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, structures, material properties, and so on. Obviously not every control system contains elements from more than one discipline.
The basis for analysis of a system is the foundation provided by linear system theory, which assumes a cause-effect relationship for the components of a system. Control system analysis involves the uniform treatment of different engineering components. What this means is that we try to represent the system elements in a common format and identify the connections between the elements in a similar way. When we do this, most control systems look the same in schematic form and lend themselves to common methods of analysis.
2.History of Automatic Control
The use of feedback to control a system has had a fascinating history. The first applications of feedback control appeared in the development of float regulator mechanisms in Greece in the period 300 to 1 B.C. The first feedback system invented in modern Europe is the temperature regulator of Cornelis Drebbel (1572-1633) of Holland. The first automatic feedback controller used in an industrial process is generally agreed to be James Watt’s flyball governor, developed in 1769 for controlling the speed of a steam engine. The all-mechanical device, shown in Figure 5.1, measures the speed of the output shaft and utilizes the movement of the flyball with speed to control the value and therefore the amount of steam entering the engine. As the speed increases, the ball weights rise and move away from the shaft axis, thus closing the value. The flyweights require power from the engine to turn and therefore cause the speed measurement to be less accurate.
A large impetus to the history and practice of automatic control occurred during World War II when it became necessary to design and construct automatic airplane pilots, gun-positioning systems, radar antenna control systems, and other military systems based on the feedback control approach. The complexity and expected performance of these military systems necessitated an extension of the available control techniques and fostered interest in control systems and development of new insights and methods.
Frequency-domain techniques continued to dominate the field of control following World War II with the increased use of the Laplace transform and the complex frequency plane. During the 1950s, the emphasis in control engineering theory was on the development and use of the s-plane methods and, particularly, the root locus approach. Furthermore, during the 1980s, the utilization of digital computers for control components became routine. The technology of these new control elements to perform accurate and rapid calculations was formerly unavailable to control engineers.
With the advent of Sputnik and the space age, another new impetus was imparted to control engineering. It became necessary to design complex, highly accurate control systems for missiles and space probes. Furthermore, the necessity to minimize the weight of satellites and to control them very accurately has spawned the important field of optimal control. Due to these requirements, the time-domain methods developed by Liapunov, Minorsky, and others have met with great interest in the last two decades.
3.Control System Design
The design of control systems is a specific example of engineering design. Again, the goal of control engineering design is to obtain the configuration, specifications, and identification of the key parameters of a proposed system to meet an actual need.
The first step in the design process consists of establishing the system goals. For example, we may state that our goal is to control the velocity of a motor accurately. The second step is to identity the variables that we desire to control. The third step is to write the specifications in terms of the accuracy we must attain. This required accuracy of control will then lead to the identification of a sensor to measure the controlled variable.
As designers, we proceed to the first attempt to configure a system that will result in the desired control performance. The system configuration will normally consist of a sensor, the process under control, an actuator, and a controller, as shown in Figure 5.2. The next step consists of identifying a candidate for the actuator. This will, of course, depend on the process, but the actuation chosen must be capable of effectively adjusting the performance of the process. The next step is the selection of a controller, which often consists of a summing amplifier that will compare the desired response with the actual response and then forward this error-measurement signal to an amplifier. The final step in the design process is the adjustment of the parameters of the system in order to achieve the desired performance. If we can achieve the desired performance by adjusting the parameters, we will finalize the design and proceed to document the results. If not, we will need to establish an improved system configuration and perhaps select an enhanced actuator and sensor. Then we will repeat the design steps until we are able to meet the specifications, or until we decide the specifications are too demanding and should be relaxed.
In summary, the controller design problem is as follows: Given a model of the system to be controlled (including its sensors and actuators) and a set of design goals, find a suitable controller, or determine that none exists.
