"Insoluble" Problems
Professor N. R. F. Maier of the University of Michigan performed a series of experiments several years ago in which "neurosis" is induced in rats. The rats are first trained to jump off the edge of a platform at one of two doors.If the rat jumps to the right, the door holds fast, and it bumps its nose and falls into a net; if it jumps to the left, the door opens, and the rat finds a dish of food. When the rats are well trained to this reaction, the situation is changed. The food is put behind the other door, so that in order to get their reward they now have to jump to the right instead of to the left. (Other changes, such as marking the two doors in different ways, may also be introduced by the experimenter.)If the rat fails to figure out the new system, so that each time it jumps it never knows whether it is going to get food or bump its nose, it finally gives up and refuses to jump at all. At this stage, Dr. Maier says, "Many rats prefer to starve rather than make a choice."
密執安大學のN.R.F. 麥耶教授幾年前做過一系列可以誘導鼠產生“ 神經官能症” の實驗。首先訓練鼠由平臺邊緣跳向兩個門中の一個。如果鼠向右跳,右門是碰不開の,那麼鼠就撞了鼻子並掉進網裏;如果鼠向左跳,左門就打開,鼠就會找到一碟食物。在鼠已很熟悉這一反應時,就改變情況:把食物放在另外一扇門後,這樣鼠要想得到犒賞就不能向左跳,而要向右跳了。( 實驗者也可采用其他變化形式,比如用不同の方式標記兩個門。) 如果鼠弄不懂新規則,它每次跳時決不知是會得到食物還是會撞鼻子。最終它就會放棄,拒絕再跳。到這一步,麥耶博士說:“ 許多鼠寧願挨餓也不再做選擇。”
Next, the rats are forced to make a choice, being driven to it by blasts of air or an electric shock. "Animals which are induced to respond in the insoluble problem situation," says Dr. Maier, " settle down to a specific reaction (such as jumping solely at the left hand door) which they continue to execute regardless of consequences....The response chosen under these conditions becomes fixated.... Once the fixation appears, the animal is incapable of learning an adaptive response in this situation." When a reaction to the left-hand door is thus fixated, the right-hand door may be left open so that the food is plainly visible. Yet the rat, when pushed, continues to jump to the left, becoming more panicky each time.When the experimenter persists in forcing the rat to make choices, it may go into convulsions, racing around wildly, injuring its claws, bumping into chairs and tables, then going into a state of violent trembling, until it falls into a coma.In this passive state, it refuses to eat, refuses to take any interest in anything: it can be rolled up into a ball or suspended in the air by its legs—the rat has ceased to care what happens to it. It has had a "nervous breakdown."
第二步,對鼠施加強大氣流或電擊,趕它,強迫它做出選擇。“ 處於不能解決の難題之中而被迫做出反應の動物,” 麥耶博士說,“ 最後總是落到一個特定の反應上( 比如只4 向左跳),不顧結果如何都總是做出這一反應……這種條件下所做出の反應便固定不變了……一旦出現了這種固態,動物就沒有能力學會適應性の反應了。” 一旦向左跳の反應被固定下來時,可以讓右門開著,使食物呈現在眼前。可是鼠被驅趕時卻仍舊向左跳,並且每次都愈來愈惶恐不安。實驗者繼續迫使鼠做出選擇時,鼠開始驚厥不安,四下狂奔,弄傷爪子,撞上桌椅,然後渾身劇烈顫抖,直到昏迷不醒。處於這樣の被動情況,鼠拒絕進食,對一切不感興趣:可以把它卷成一團或擒住雙腿倒掛空中——無論怎樣擺布它,它都無動於衷。這時の鼠已是“ 神經崩潰” 了。
It is the "insolubility" of the rat's problem that leads to its nervous breakdown, and, as Dr. Maier shows in his studies of disturbed children and adults, rats and human beings seem to go through pretty much the same stages. First, they are trained to make habitually a given choice when confronted by a given problem; secondly, they get a terrible shock when they find that the conditions have changed and that the choice doesn't produce the expected results;third, whether through shock, anxiety, or frustration, they may fixate on the original choice and continue to make that choice regardless of consequences; fourth, they sullenly refuse to act at all; fifth, when by external compulsion they are forced to make a choice, they again make the one they were originally trained to make - and again get a bump on the nose; finally, even with the goal visible in front of them, to be attained simply by making a different choice, they go crazy out of frustration. They tear around wildly; they sulk in corners and refuse to eat; bitter, cynical, disillusioned, they cease to care what happens to them.
鼠所面臨問題の “不可解決性 ”導致了它の神經崩潰,而麥耶博士在他對心理失常の小孩和成人の研究報告中表明,鼠和人經曆の各個階段大同小異。首先是兩者受訓練,在面對某一問題時都習慣地做出某一選擇;然後,發現條件已改變而原來の選擇並不能產生預期の效果時,兩者都大吃一驚;再次,不論是出於震驚、焦慮還是受挫,兩者都會執著於最初の選擇,不管結果,一意孤行;接著,悻悻然拒絕采取行動;而後,在被迫做出選擇時,兩者又總做出最初訓練時所做出の選擇——且再次碰壁;最後,即使目標就在眼前 ,只要做出不同の選擇就唾手可得時,兩者又都由於以前受到の挫折而發狂。他們瘋狂地四處撕抓;或是躲在角落裏賭氣拒食;他們變得辛酸懷恨、不信任一切、心灰意冷,無論人們怎樣對待他們,他們都無動於衷。
Is this an exaggerated picture? It hardly seems so. The pattern recurs throughout human life, from the small tragedies of the home to the world-shaking tragedies among nations. In order to cure her husband's faults, a wife may nag him. His faults get worse, so she nags him some more.Naturally his faults get worse still - and she nags him even more. Governed, like the rat, by a fixated reaction to the problem of her husband's faults, she can meet it only in one way. The longer she continues, the worse it gets, until they are both nervous wrecks.
這是否是一幅誇張の畫面呢 ?似乎並非如此。這個模式反複再現於人生,小到家庭の悲劇,大到震撼世界の國家間の悲劇。為了糾正丈夫の毛病,妻子數落他。毛病越壞,就越多地挨數落。當然他の毛病變得更壞,她就更加數落。像鼠一樣,妻子對丈夫の毛病受一種固定反應の擺布,她只能總以一種方式應付它。她這麼做の日子越久,丈夫の毛病就越厲害,直至夫婦二人在神經上都備受折磨,疲憊不堪。
Again, white people in a northern city, deploring the illiteracy and high crime rate among Negroes, segregate them, persecute them (it is well known that the police are almost always tougher on Negro suspects than on whites),and deny them opportunities for employment and advancement.The denial of opportunity perpetuates the illiteracy and the high crime rate, which in turn perpetuate the segregation, persecution, and denial of opportunity. The search for a way to break up this vicious circle taxes the best minds among those interested in orderly social change: city councilmen, educators, urban planners, Negro organizations, as well as state governments and federal authorities.
再看一個例子。北方某城市の白人因厭惡黑人高文盲率和高犯罪率の狀況而隔離他們、他們 (眾所周知,通常對黑人嫌疑犯比對白人嫌疑犯要粗暴得多 ),並且拒絕給他們受雇與提升の機會。這種機會の被剝奪使文盲率與犯罪率高の情況得以延續下去,轉而又使隔離、和不給黑人機會の做法得以繼續存在。要找到解決這一惡性循環の方法需要致力於有序社會改革の智者殫精竭慮,包括市議員、教育家、城市規劃人員、黑人組織以及州和聯邦。
To cite another example, students trying to express themselves in writing may write poorly. In order to improve their writing, says the English teacher, I must teach them the fundamentals of grammar, spelling, and punctuation.By thus placing excessive emphasis on grammar and mechanics while ignoring the students' ideas, the teacher quickly destroys student interest in writing. That interest destroyed, the students write even more poorly.Thereupon the teacher redoubles his dose of grammar and mechanics. The students become increasingly bored and rebellious. Such students fill the ranks of “remedial English" classes in high school and college.
另一個例子是,想用寫作表達自己思想の學生可能寫得很差。英文老師說,我一定要教會他們語法、拼寫和標點符號這些方面の基礎知識,來提高他們の寫作。於是由於過分強調語法與寫作方面の技術性細節而忽視了學生の思想,老師很快湮滅了學生對寫作の興趣。失去了興趣,學生寫得就更差了,老師於是再給學生以加倍の語法和寫作方法の練習。學生也就越來越厭倦和反感了。中學和大學の“英文補習”班裏全是這樣の學生。
Again, a nation, believing that the only way to secure peace and dignity is through armed strength, may embark on a huge armaments program. The program arouses the fears of neighboring nations, so that they too increase their armaments to match those of the first nation.Anxiety and tension increase. It is clear, the first nation declares, that we shall continue to feel anxious about our national security so long as we are not adequately prepared for all emergencies; we must therefore double our armaments. This naturally makes the neighboring nations even more anxious, so that they too double their armaments.Anxiety and tension increase even more. It is clear, the first nation declares, that our mistake has been to underestimate our defense needs. This time we must be sure to be sufficiently armed to preserve peace. We must triple our armaments....
同樣,一個認為武裝力量是維護和平與尊嚴の唯一有效途徑の國家,會推行巨大の擴軍計劃。這種計劃引起鄰國の恐慌,於是後者也擴充軍備,與前者抗衡。焦慮與緊張氣氛升溫。前者宣稱,很明顯,只要我們不能對所有突發事件都有充分准備,我們就會不斷為國家の安危擔憂;所以我們必須加倍 擴軍。這自然使鄰國更為恐慌,於是也把軍備翻了一番。焦慮與緊張氣氛更強了。前者宣稱,很明顯,我們犯了低估國防需要の錯誤。這次我們一定要保證 我們有充分武力來保持和平。我們必須把軍備再加一倍 ……
Of course these instances are oversimplified, but it is often because of vicious circles of this kind that we are unable to get at or do anything about the conditions that lead to disaster. The pattern is frequently recognizable; the goal may be in sight, attainable by a mere change in methods.Nevertheless, governed by fixated reactions, the rat "cannot" get food, the wife "cannot" cure her husband's faults, Negroes will have to wait two or three generations "until the time is ripe" for social change, and we "cannot afford" to stop devising and manufacturing weapons so deadly that they cannot be used without destroying civilization itself.
當然,這些例子難免過於簡單化,但是確實常常由於這種類似の惡性循環使我們無法認清或處理導致災難の不測事件の條件。這樣の模式常常很容易識別;目標就在眼前,只要在方法上做些改變就會達到。可是,由於受到固定反應の擺布,鼠“無法”吃到食物,妻子“無法”改掉丈夫の毛病,黑人還要等兩三代人の時間,“直到社會改革の時機成熟”,我們“無法”停止發明並制造可摧毀人類文明の致命武器。
There is, however, an important difference between the insolubility of the rat's problems and the insolubility of human problems. Dr. Maier's rats were driven to their nervous breakdowns by problems more complicated than would naturally occur in a rat's environment. But human breakdowns are ordinarily caused by problems that human beings themselves have created:problems of religious and ethical belief; problems of money and credit and mortgages and trust funds and stock market fluctuations; problems of man-made custom and etiquette and social organization and law.
不過,鼠與人の難題の不可解決性之間有一個重要の區別。麥耶博士の鼠遇到の難題比它在自然狀態下能遇上の複雜得多,它是被逼迫至神經崩潰の。而人類の神經崩潰一般總是由於人類自己制造の難題所造成:如宗教與道德信仰の問題,金錢、貸款、抵押、托管基金、股市漲跌の問題,人為の習慣、禮節、社會團體和法律の問題,等等。
Rats can hardly be blamed for not being able to solve problems set for them by Dr. Maier; there are limits to a rat's powers of abstraction. But there are no known limits to the human capacity to abstract and organize and make use of abstractions. Hence, if human beings find problems insoluble because of fixated reactions - if they are frustrated because they can respond in only one way, regardless of context or circumstances, to certain symbolically defined situations - they are functioning at less than full human capacity.They can be said, in Korzybski's suggestive phrase, to be "copying animals" in their reactions. Wendell Johnson summarized this idea aptly when he said, "To a mouse, cheese is cheese; that's why mouse traps work." How do these fixations occur in human beings?
不能責怪鼠解決不了麥耶博士為它們設下の難題;因為鼠の抽象能力有限。但人類の抽象能力、組織和利用抽象の能力是無限の。因此,如果人由於固定反應而認為難題不可解決——如果人受挫折只是由於對某些以符號來界定の形勢,不論其前因後果或出於環境只能采取一種反應の話——那麼,人便沒有充分發揮出其全部人の能力。如科爾奇布斯基所說の意味深長の話:此時,人在做出反應這一點上是在“模仿動物”。對此,溫德爾·約翰遜有一貼切の歸納:“對鼠而言,奶酪就是奶酪;這就是捕鼠器能捕鼠の原因。”可這種固定反應是如何在人類中發生の呢?
Supplementary Reading
In the 1940s, psychologist Abraham Maslow recognized that workers perform as they do in order to satisfy a wide variety of needs. He realized that these needs would have to be classified to explain motion. The model he worked out is called Maslow’s ladder. Two principles underlie this model: A human being is an animal with many needs, and only those needs not yet fully satisfied cause a person to act. When needs on a lower level are satisfied, at least in part, the rung above becomes a goal a person will strive to reach. With these principles in mind, let us now take a look at each set of needs depicted in the model.
All the basic drives that sustain life—food, clothing and shelter—are called physiological needs. A person must satisfy these needs before pursuing any other objective. Most people, of course, strongly desire more than the minimum level of satisfaction required for survival:They want three meals a day instead of one and a house instead of a hut.
The physiological needs are readily satisfied in modern societies by money. Even the few pennies earned by nineteenth-century laborers were strong motivation to people who had not eaten for several days. They would suffer almost any abuse to collect them and live another day.
People have a strong desire to feel protected. Usually this means protection against loss of the physical necessities, the idea of cushion against misfortune. Once more, money will effectively satisfy this level of need. Even today few peole succeed in earning enough money to feel completely secure. This is why the classical theory of motivation held on so long.
Business now does a reasonably good job of meeting the worker’s demands for safety. Wages are high enough to allow most workers to save for a rainy day. Guaranteed job security, pension plans, health insurance, life insurance, and employer contributions to Social Security are all examples of direct satisfaction of safety needs.
Humans are social animals. Their desires to associate with others and to be loved by others are nearly as strong as their will to survive. Indeed, even when the need for safety is not totally satisfied, people begin feeling social needs.
This is the first level of needs that money cannot readily satisfy.As the Hawthorne Studies clearly showed, workers’ desire to be accepted by co-workers could motivate them more strongly than the desire to earn more money. Furthermore, workers need no impetus from management to seek satisfaction of their social needs. It is this drive that gives rise to the informal organization.
People need to feel self-esteem, a sense of personal worth derived from their competence, achievement, or independence. They also need the respect of others, a respect based on a recognition of their competence rather than on friendship (a social need). The need for esteem is closely tied to the idea of status.
Status is one’s rank in comparison with others in the same social group. A person with high status is one who is well regarded by friends and associates. Several factors can give a person high status in society. These include wealth, social standing, advanced education, and a prestigious occupation. We are all familiar with status symbols such as a Cadillac or a mansion. Since these familiar symbols of status all cost money, it is common to mistake a striving for status as a drive to accumulate wealth. While earning a million dollars may indeed bestow status on an individual, a person motivated by esteem needs seeks the status, not the money.People in business often seek satisfaction of their esteem needs by pursuing a promotion. To some individuals, the status conferred by the title “vice-president” is more important than the salary that also comes with the job. Of course, people also manifest the need for esteem when they seek one of the occupations that our society holds in high esteem, such as physician, writer, artist, actor, university professor, lawyer, or musician.
Maslow defined the need for self-realization as "the desire to become more what one is, to become everything one is capable of". A person who operates on this level usually views work as something to be done in order to feel complete as a person to fulfill a personal philosophy. It is a higher level need than the one for esteem because the person involved already feels that he or his work is worthwhile and respected. Such people find their work intrinsically interesting and satisfying.
Relatively few people ever reach the stage where they are dominated by the need for self-realization. There is a tendency to think that only a Schweitzer or an Einstein is in this position. Maslow felt, however, that everyone is capable of feeling this need to some degree.
Maslow's ladder is a convenient way to classify human needs. But if you see it as a simple step at a time procedure, you make a serious mistake.It is not necessary for a person to satisfy each level of need completely before being motivated by a higher level. In our society, the majority of people have reached at least the fourth rung of needs. Thus, in real life nearly all needs are interacting within the individual. In other words, all five need levels operate in an individual at once, and he will actively strive to improve his position on all five rungs simultaneously.
There is another factor to be considered as needs work out in real life. As people partially satisfy each need, they tend to require more of it for full satisfaction. This is known as the phenomenon of rising expectations. It partially explains why workers today are unhappy with their earnings even though earnings have never been higher. A starving factory worker of the 1800s was overjoyed to earn enough to buy an extra potato. A factory worker today becomes angry if he cannot afford steak.