Semantics: the study of meaning of linguistic units words and sentences particularly.
5.1 Meanings of “meaning”
G. Leech’s viewpoint on meaning in Semantics (1974)
1. Conceptual meaning: what is told in dictionaries:
Logical, cognitive or denotative content
Connote:imply in addition to the literal meaning
Denote: be the sign or symbol of
Associative meaning:
2. connotative meaning:what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to
(1) Tom is a pig.
3. Social meaning: what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use
formal and literary;
colloquial, familiar and slang etc.
(2) A. They cast a stone at the police.
b. They chucked a stone at the cops.
4. Affective meaning (感情意义): what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer.
(3) I’m terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voice a little.
5. Reflective meaning (反射/ 联想意义): what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.
(4) a. Human language is a tool of social intercourse.
b. Bottoms up! / Cheers! 干杯!
6. Collocative meaning(搭配意义): what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.
(5) a. A pretty woman vs. a handsome woman
b. John is a man of sense. vs. *John is a man of meaning.
7. Thematic meaning (主题意义): what is communicated by the way in which message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.
(7) A. My brother owns the largest restaurant in London.
b. The largest restaurant in London is owned by my brother.
5.2 The Referential Theory (指称论):
The referential theory: the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for.
(8) He entered the house and had a good meal.
house: a structure serving as a dwelling for one or more persons, especially for a family.
meal: the food served and eaten in one sitting
Problems: when we explain the meaning of a word (house) by pointing to the thing it refers to, we do not mean a house must be of the particular size, shape, color and material as the house we are pointing to at the moment of speaking. We use a particular house as an example of something more general. That is, there is something behind the concrete thing we can see with our eyes. And that something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept.
the semantic/semiotic triangle(语义、符号三角):
Ogden and Richards in The Meaning of Meaning
The relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct. It is mediated by concept.
A word symbolizes a concept.
A concept refers to a thing.
Concept (thought of reference)
... ..........................................
Word (symbol) thing (referent)
A word stands for a referent/ thing (arbitrariness).
speaker c s hearer
sense vs. reference:
1. sense/concept: the abstract properties of an entity
reference: the concrete entities having some properties
but, if
God, ghost, dragon
Leech’s conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference.
Dogs are loyal.
2. There is yet another difference between sense and reference. To some extent, we can say every word has a sense, i. e. some conceptual content, otherwise we will not be able to use it or understand it. But not every word has a reference.
Grammatical words like but, if, and
God, ghost, dragon
Therefore, we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.
5. 3. Sense relations:
Sense may be defined as the semantic relationships between one linguistic unit and another.
Three kinds of sense relations: sameness, oppositeness, inclusiveness.
5.3.1 word sense (涵义关系) relations
(1) synonymy:sameness or close similarity of meaning
buy vs. purchase, autumn vs. fall (n.)
Synonyms are contextually dependent.
(2) Antonymy: oppositeness of meaning
a. gradable antonymy/ gradability: 等级反义关系
Firstly, members differ in terms of degree.
The denial of one is not necessary the assertion of the other.
Big intermediate small
Hot warm lukewarm cool cold
Secondly, antonyms are graded against different norms.
(a) big (car) vs. (a) small (helicopter)
Thirdly, one member of a pair, one for the high degree generally, serves as the cover term.
Young vs. old
How old are you?
Unmarkedness vs. markedness
Generality vs. particularity
b. complementary antonymy/ complementarity 互补反义关系
Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other. There is no intermediate ground between the two.
Dead vs. alive
Single vs. married
Identifying contrary from complementary:
Firstly, to some extent, the difference between the gradable and the complementary can be compared to the traditional logical distinction between the contrary相反命题 and the contradictory矛盾命题. In logic, a proposition is the contrary of another if both can not be true, though they may both be false. And a proposition is the contradictory of another if it is impossible for both to be true, or false.
e. g. The coffee is hot. Vs. The coffee is cold.
This is a male cat. Vs. This is a female cat.
Secondly, the norm in this type is absolute. The same norm is used for all the things it is applicable to.
Thirdly, there is no cover term for the two members of a pair of complementary words.
Fourthly, the pair of antonyms true: false is exceptional to some extent.
How true is the story?
C. converse antonymy/ relational opposites 反向反义词
reversal of relationship; one presupposes the other.
buy vs. sell (reciprocal role)
husband vs. wife (kinship relation)
before vs. after (temporal and spatial relations)
better vs. worse (degree relation)
(3) hyponymy 上下义关系 the notion of meaning inclusiveness
living
plant animal
bird fish insect animal
human animal
tiger lion elephant...
superoridinate: 上坐标词
hyponym下义词, cohyponyms
Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordinate to itself.
Autohyponym (自我下义词): a hyponym is a hyponym of itself:
Flower
tulip violet rose
A superordinate may be missing sometimes.
?
whiskers moustache beard
(4) polysemy 一词多义 polysemic words
(5) homonymy(同形异义词): different words with the same spelling
lead (v.) vs. lead (n.)
5.3.2 Componential analysis 成分分析
The feature-based analysis: the meaning of a word is not an unanalysable whole. It may be seen as complex of different semantic feature. Or it refers to the practice of defining the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.
man: [ HUMAN+ ADULT + MALE]
bachelor: [HUMAN + ADULT + MALE- MARRIED]
father= PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)
mother= PARENT (x, y) & ~MALE (x)
take=CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y)))
give= CAUSE (x, (~HAVE (x, y)))
kill= CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (~ ALIVE (y)))))
murder = INTEND ( x, ( CAUSE ( x, ( BECOME (y, ( ~ALIVE ( y ) ) ) ) ) )
Problems of the componential analysis:
1.Many words are different sets of semantic components. Man
2.Some semantic components are seen as binary taxonomies.
Boy vs. girl; girl vs. woman
3. There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain. There is still the question of how to explain the semantic components themselves.
5.4 Sentential senses
5.4.1 predication analysis 述谓分析
predication analysis is to break down predications/proposition into their constituents: arguments (论元) and a predicate (谓词)with predicate governing the arguments.
Predicates: content verb, noun, adjective, preposition
Arguments: noun, pronoun, subordinate clause (S)
valence (位,价)
No-place predicate (一位谓词):
It was raining hard outside R (Ø)
One- place predicate:
It seemed he was right S (s)
He was crying hard outside C (h)
Marry used to be an assistant. A (m)
Two- place predicate:
We are having lessons. H (w, l)
John likes English very much. L (j, e)
Marry is in the classroom. I (m, c)
Three-place predicate:
He put the bookbag on the shelf. P (h, b, s)
Other predicates: cry, seem, come, have, send;
哭,买;告诉 etc.
5. 4.2 sentential sense relations
(1) entailment 蕴涵
(a) entails (b) when (a) is true, (b) is necessarily true; when (b) is false, (a) is false; when (a) is false, (b) may be true or false.
1. a. he married a blonde heiress.
b. he married a blonde.
2. a. Marry owns three roses.
b. Marry owns a flower.
(2) presupposition 前提/预设
(a) is presupposition of (b) when a is true, b is true; when a is false, b is still true; when b is false, no truth value can be said about a.
1. a. the girl he married was an heiress.
b. he married a girl.
(3) implicature 含外之意
1. a. John did not wash the dishes.
b. The dishes were dirty.
2.a. few men marry blonde heiresses.
b. some men marry blonde heiresses.
(4) a is synonymous with b
a. The boy killed the dog.
b. The dog was killed by the boy.
(5) A is inconsistent with b.
a. John is married to Mary.
b. John is a bachelor.
(5) A is self-contradictory
*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
John murdered Bill without intending to.
(6) A is semantically anomalous (语义反常)
*his typewriter has had bad intentions.
5.4.3 An integrated theory 整合理论
The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is unusually known as the principle of Compositionality 组合性原则。
Katz and Forder (1963)’s An Integrated Theory of Linguistic Description:
A semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules. The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words.
Grammatical or syntactic markers: idiosyncratic features are listed
The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.
This effectively provides a solution to the integration of syntax and semantics. Sentences made up of the same words (Surface structure) but indifferent orders will surely be given different semantic interpretations (deep structure).
Problems: first, the distinction between semantic markers and distinguishers is not very clear.
Second, there are cases in which the collocation of words can not be accounted for by grammatical markers, semantic markers or selection restrictions.
Third, to explain the meaning of words, one must go on to explain the meaning of the semantic components.
5.4.4 Logical semantics: propositional logic and predicate logic
propositional logic (命题逻辑): is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite proposition is determined by the truth value of its constituent proposition and connections between them.
A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement (J. Lyons 1977:141-2).
The truth value of a composition is said to be the function of, or is determined by, the truth values of its component propositions and the logical connectives used in it.
Logical connectives:
~ /¬: logical connective negation 逻辑连词否定 not
&: conjunction 合取连词 and
V: disjunction 析取连词 or
→: implication蕴涵连词 if...then
≡: equivalence 等值连词 iff...then
The truth tables for the two-place connectives
p q | p & /л q | p V/¬ q | p → q | p≡ /↔q |
T T | T | T | T | T |
T F | F | T | F | F |
F T | F | T | T | F |
F F | F | F | T | T |
Predicate logic谓词逻辑: the study of internal structure of simple propositions.
Proposition: argument (s) and the predicate
An argument is a term which refers to some entity about which a statement is being made. And a predicate is a term which ascribes some property or relation to the entity, or entities referred to.
A simple proposition is seen as a function of its argument. The truth value of a proposition varies with the argument.
Socrates is a man. M (s)
John does not like linguistics. ~ L (j, l)
A simple proposition is seen as a function of its argument.
M (s) =1 L (j, l) =0
Α: Universal quantifier (全称量词):all, every
All men are rational.
For all x, it is the case that, if x is a man, then x is rational.
Αx (M (x) → R (x))
Ε: existential quantifier 存在量词
Some men are clever.
There exists at least one x, such that x is a man and x is clever.
Ex (M (x) & C (x))
William saw everyone. Ax (H (x) → S (w, x))
William saw someone. Ex (H (x) & S (w, x))
For further practice see ex. 8 (Hu, 2006: 1-190)