英语写作：段落展开

总体介绍

考生写的文章基本上是议论文、说明文和记叙文。

下面介绍广泛用于这三种文体的一些扩展段落的

方法。它们是：

（1）举例法；

（2）描述法；

（3）陈述原因理由法；

（4）定义法；

（5）比较对比法；

（6）分类法。

1. 举例法

•什么是举例法？

•举例法是通过提供实例来扩展段落的一种方法。这是一种常用的而且易于为初学者掌握的段落展开法。它用具体的事例来阐述主题句中的支配思想，展开支配思想中所概括的尚未展开的内涵，用实例来支持主题句中的观点，从而使其得到较为充分和完整的表达。

举例法讲解

•请看下面的段落：

•Books are of various kinds and different contents. We have history books recording past events, geography books dealing with the earth, mathematics books focusing on space and numbers, language books studying the means of communication and literary books reflecting social problems. In a word, we have various books dealing with different things in the world.

具体分析

•这个段落的主题句显然是“Books are of various kinds and different contents.”“various kinds and different contents”是支配思想。在段落展开中，作者用了“history books”、“geography books”、“mathematics books”、“language books”和“literary books”五个具体实例，展开了主题句中的一个支配思想：“of various kinds”。同时，作者又举了五个实例来展开另一个支配思想：“of different contents”。这些不同的内容包括：“dealing with the earth”、“recording past events”、“focusing on space and numbers”、“studying the means of communication”和“reflecting social problems”。所以，作者成功地运用了有关的实例，很好地围绕着支配思想展开了段落。

找出主题句、支配思想和扩展段落的句子

•In order to prevent non-smokers from being affected, measures must be taken to reduce the chances of smoking. A lot of work can be done concerning this. For example, in some public places, such as in theatres, cinemas, smoking should be forbidden. Even on the train or plane people should not allowed to smoke. Doctors, teachers, government leaders should take the lead not to smoke. Above all, the harmfulness and dangers caused by smoking should be made known to all through newspapers, broadcast, or TV programmes. Also, the growing of tobacco and the production of cigarettes should not be encouraged. Only in this way can we effectively reduce the chances of smoking.

•Topic sentence：_________________

•The controlling idea：_____________

•Example 1：_____________________

•Example 2：_____________________

•Example 3：_____________________

•Example 4：_____________________

又一例：

•There are many kinds of programs on TV that people like to watch. Often, important political and social events can be watched on TV while they are

happening. Many people like to watch them. Many people for example, watched the landing of the astronauts on the moon. A second kind of program that many people like to watch is called a talk show. On this kind of show, one person

interviews several famous people. In the conversations, you can learn many

interesting things about important people in theatre, politics, sports, and other fields. A third kind of program that many people like to watch is a program in a foreign language. There are some TV channels which broadcast all of their

programs in Spanish, French, or some other language. These programs are

watched by many people who speak those languages. Students who are studying foreign languages sometimes watch these programs to learn the language better.•Topic sentence：_________________

•The controlling idea：_____________

•Example 1：_____________________

•Example 2：_____________________

•Example 3：_____________________

小结

•从以上所举的范例可以看出，在使用举例法来扩展段落时，要注意这样两个问题：

•（1）要精选例子。就是说，要让例子恰如其分，能有力而准确地说明问题。在构思阶段，可以多想出几个例子，然后根据支配思想的要求，选择那些最贴切、最生动和最易于表达清楚的例子来扩展段落。一般来说，每一基本思想举二至三个例子就足够了。（2）在举出若干实例来支持主题句中的支配思想后，作者可用一句话来概括实例所揭示的主题，以期给读者留下更加深刻的印象。

2．描述法

•描述法是段落展开的一种重要方法，在记叙文和说明文中尤其如此。描述性段落需要比较强烈的、色调鲜明和富于表现力的文字来表述。一段好的描述常常会使读者感到身临其境，好像亲眼看到、亲耳听到、甚至亲身品位到作者所描写的一切。在描写性段落中，主题句及其支配思想往往为作者规定了所要描述的人或物、事件等的范围和性质。所以，在用描述法来扩展一个段落时，也要注意围绕主题句中的支配思想，否则，你所写出的段落可能就随心所欲，海阔天空而达不到切题的要求了。在用描述法进行段落展开时，我们还可以用不同的具体手段来进行，这些常用的具体手段包括：（1）细节描写；（2）按时间顺序描述；（3）按空间顺序描述。

（1）细节描写

•用这种方法可以描述一段经历，一个熟悉的人，一个故事，一系列变化等等。在段落开头，可以先用一个句子把要描述的东西概括一下，以便给后面的描述留下充分的余地。这个概括性的句子往往就是主题句。

例如：

•（1）During the summer vacation, I went on a short visit to my hometown.

I haven't been there for seven years, and the changes that have taken place nearly took my breath away.

•（2）My English teacher is a very qualified teacher.

•（3）My hometown is a beautiful place.

•（4）During my stay in the U.S.A., I encountered many interesting things.像这样一些主题句，都适合用细节描写的方法将它们扩展成段落。

请看下面这篇用细节描写法写成的段落：

•Great changes have taken place in my hometown since 1983. The streets are much broader and flanked by new modern buildings. All the houses are bright with new paint and over them antennas can be seen. The old village shop where the villagers used to sell their eggs and fruits for exchange of salt and oil was gone. It was replaced by a three-storied new department store, which offers for sale almost everything that the villagers need, including TV sets, washing machines and refrigerators. Crowds of people are shopping every day. Their smiles show their happiness. The school where I studied has also been replaced by a bigger one with a school library. I was really enchanted by all this.

分析

•显而易见，这一段落的主题句是第一句，支配思想是“great changes”。

•作者围绕这一支配思想，描写了“the streets”、“the houses”、“the shop”、“the people”和“the school”等几个细节，给人以深刻的印象。

如何选取细节

•在使用这个方法时，我们要注意细节的选择。要选择那些最典型、最能说明问题而且易于描述的细节，切不可面面俱到，使文章变得冗长拖沓，没有重点。请看下面这一段描写人的段落，这个段落主要写一个理想的朋友，作者非常注意细节的选择。

比如：

•My ideal friend is of course a good friend whose goodness is shown below: He has no bad habits, such as smoking or drinking.He lives in frugality. He studies diligently so as not to waste his golden time. At home he honors his parents and loves his brothers; at school he respects his teachers and sympathizes with his schoolmates. He treats those truly who are true to him. He never speaks of others' evils nor boasts of his own merits.

（2）按时间顺序描述

•当一段文章要描述一连串接连发生的事情时，最聪明、最简单的方法是依照这些事情发生的时间顺序，逐一进行描写。这样就会形成一段条理清楚的文章。

请看下面的段落：

•We planned a surprise party for Dona recently. She never had a birthday party and she was twenty years old. First, we carefully made a guest list. We included many of her friends from school, a few of her other friends from church, and all of her brothers and sisters. Second, we planned a suitable menu. We needed some refreshing drinks and food. We were going to serve fruit punch and coffee. We also wanted chicken sandwiches, a birthday cake with twenty candles, and ice cream. Third, we planned entertainment. A boy did magic tricks skillfully. Another boy played the guitar well. We all liked group singing. We had a lot of records and a record player. Everyone helped. The party became a secret community project.

点评

•这一段的第一句话可以看作是主题句，第二句解释了要为Dona举办晚会的理由。接着，作者便按照先后顺序描写了三个准备过程，读起来使人觉得非常清晰，非常有条理。

再看一段，注意几个动作之间所使用的连接词：

•To wash your dog properly, you should follow several steps with the utmost care. First, you should make sure that your dog knows nothing, in advance, of your plan to wash him. After quietly preparing his tub of lukewarm water, you should plunge him into it tenderly but firmly. Then, keeping his head well above water, you should soap his whole body, proceeding from his neck to his tail. After you get it completely covered with soap, be sure to rinse him thoroughly. For your dog, being washed is an experience that cannot end soon enough. Therefore, as soon as possible, you should both enjoy the final step of his bath----the vigoroussport of drying him.

点评

•这一段按时间顺序写成的段落，在动作与动作之间作者使用了“after”、“then”、“after”和“therefore”等几个连接词。它们使句子间的关系更清晰，使该段落读起来更流畅、自然。关于连接词的用法，我们在后面还要专门介绍。

（3）按空间顺序描写

•这个方法主要用来描写一个地方或一个地区，也可以用来描写一个更小的范围，如一间教室、一个公寓或是一个花园。描述的时候要按照一定的空间顺序，如自上而下、由表及里、从左向右、由东向西等。具体按什么顺序，要按文章的要求而定。注意不要东一句西一句，毫无章法可循，这样就会使读者读起来不得要领。

请看下面一段描写天安门广场的文章：

•The first place I visited was Tian An Men Square, the symbol of our country. Standing in the middle of the square, I had a unique feeling which is quite different from the pictures, television showings I had seen before! It is the largest square in the world. Around it, there are the Great Hall of People, the Great Museum of Chinese History and the Memorial Hall of Chairman Mao.

点评

•这一段按空间顺序对“Tian An Men Square”进行了由内向外

的详细描写，从“in the middle”到“around it”，这样的描写显得很有条理。

再看一段描写故乡小城的文章：

•Like many other ordinary small cities, my hometown is both beautiful and attractive. The town is divided into two parts by a river. There is a bridge across the river and this is the only way people can get from one part to the other. On one side of the river is the old city; and on the other a new city which I think would in the future attract tourists. The river is quite broad, but no big steamships come up here. However, great logs of wood are floated down the river from the forests and collected here by timber merchants. I like the river very much, for its water is pure and fresh, and

we get a good deal of amusement out of it in swimming, fishing and boating.

点评

•这段文章以横穿城市的河流为轴心，对家乡小城进行了描写，写出了小城特有的美，读起来很有感染力。

练一练

•根据下面的段落主题句，从所给的细节中选出你认为最重要的，用这些细节把主题句扩展成一个段落：

（1）

•（1）主题句：The idea of marriage as a way of life has changed recently in the United States.

•细节1：Not everyone tries to get married. Some people decide that they would live alone.

•细节2：Some people prefer to have several children.

•细节3：Some people only have several children.

•细节4：Many people get married, and then they find that they are not happy.

•细节5：The number of divorces in the U.S. has increased in recent years. •细节6：Many people get married, but their marriages are very different from the traditional marriage relationships.

•扩展成的段落

（2）

•主题句：I have an increasing admiration for the teacher in the country school.

•细节1：She teaches quite well in all the subjects.

•细节2：She manages to do some other things to help her students, such as helping them wash clothes and cook.

•细节3：She was born in 1968.

•细节4：She conceives her pupils' costumes, cleans up their messes, and shares their confidence.

•细节5：All the children in the school regard her as their great friend.

•细节6：She likes sports very much.

•扩展成的段落

3．陈述原因理由法•这种方法也被称为“因果法”。在说明文和议论文中，是常用的扩展段落的方法之一。一般来说，使用这种方法主要有两种情形。一是主题句中先给出结果（effect），要求在后面的段落发展句中陈述出若干个造成这个结果的原因（cause）。另一种情形是，在主题句中给出一个原因，后面的段落发展句中给出这个原因所造成的各种结果。

下面请看两个段落：

•（1）Diligence is the key factor of success. Why? Diligence gives every man and woman, every boy and girl, proper work to do. Many men have become great because of their hardship. Diligence can make a fool wise and a poor man rich. Thus, we know that diligence is a good thing.

•（2）Cigarette smoke contains nicotine, several cancer producing or irritating substances and carbon monoxide gas. Damage to the lining of the bronchial tubes is much more common among cigarette smokers than non-smokers, even when there is no obvious disease. Some of these changes are considered to be

pre-cancerous. Lung function is generally reduced among cigarette smokers. Cigarette smoking is a greater hazard than other factors--such as community air pollution--in the causation of lung cancer and chronic bronchitis.

分析

•以上两个段落中，第一段的主题句是一个结果，也可以说是一个结论。接下来，作者在发展句中用三个理由来支持这个结论。最后一句是总结。第二段的第一句给出了原因，后面的发展句中介绍了这个原因所造成的种种结果。

运用

•在实际写作中，先说结果后讲原因的写法更为常见。它主要用来解释“为什么”（why）。有的时候，主题句非常清楚地表明，这一段主要就是讲原因的。这种开门见山的写法初学者很容易掌握。例如：

品味下文

•There are four major reasons why I like New York City. First of all, I think it is a beautiful city. It is filled with steel, glass skyscrapers, charming, old stone buildings, and attractive parks and squares. Second, I enjoy the cultural life which New York offers. In addition, I appreciate the light entertainment the city gives. Finally I like the diversity of people in New York City.

点评

•这一段落的主题句非常直接了当地告诉读者，这一段就是要讲作者喜欢纽约的四个原因。这时候，要考虑好四个原因的排列顺序。孰轻孰重，要做到心中有数。然后要考虑四个原因之间用什么连接词将其连接。

含蓄的因果关系主题句

•有时候，主题句比较含蓄，它只是暗示下面要讲原因。例如下面这些主题句：

•（1）Some people like riding motorcycles.

•（2）I enjoy living in big cities.

•（3）Now people are able to pay more attention to the food they eat.

•（4）But the overgrowth of population presents a threat to the existence of human society.

•在类似这样的主题句中，已经包含了一个形成了的结果（或结论）。读者急于想知道的便是“Why?”、“Why is that?”或者“What is the cause of the fact?”等等。那么，接下来，作者便可以从容地用一个或几个理由来把这个主题句扩展成段落。请看这几个主题句扩展以后的段落：

•（1）Some people like riding motorcycles. They think thatmotorcycles can run much faster than bicycles and as fast as cars though they are small in size. Those who ride motorcycles can save much of their time. Moreover, riding fast is exciting.

•（2）I enjoy living in big cities. The main reason for that is the life in big cities is very convenient. There is fast public transport, a wide variety of goods to choose from, all the latest modern conveniences and plenty of public places for enjoyment. Above all, the perfect health care system make you live in great comfort.

•（3）Now people are able to pay more attention to the food they eat. Firstly, with the development of China's economy, people earn more and more money, so they may choose the food they like to eat. Secondly, more and more people have realized that what they eat concerns their health greatly. So people intend to choose those healthy and nutritious food to eat.

•（4）But the overgrowth of population presents a threat to the existence of human society. A large population demands a great deal of food and shelter space. However, the limited productivity and scarce natural resources can hardly meet the needs of the ever-increasing population. Thus, in the long run, the overgrowth of the world population will only endanger mankind.

判断下列主题句中，哪些用举例法，哪些用因果法扩展段落

（1）There are several advantages of learning a foreign language.

（2）English, like other foreign languages, is a very useful tool in life. （3）Women are really poor drivers.

（4）Beijing is an ideal city for holding 2008's Olympic Games.

（5）Success lies in diligence.

（6）Time is more valuable than money.

（7）Early rising is beneficial in more than one way.

（8）Everybody knows that time is life.4．定义法

•提到定义法，我们大家往往会想到就是为一个词、术语或是一个概念下定义，对它们进行简明而准确的界定，以避免人们认识上的混乱和误解。这只是狭义上的定义法。因为一个词、术语只需用一个短语或句子就可以了。比如，“deck，a floor in a ship”；“To mend means to repair.”；“Ink is colored water which we use for writing.”

•我们这里要讨论的，则是广义的定义法，它主要是用一个段落（即若干个发展句）来解释说明主题句中所给的某个概念、某个人或某个事物的内涵。比如下面这几个主题句：

•（1）What, then, is generation gap?

•（2）Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person's point of view.

•（3）Mathematics is a step-by-step system of solving increasingly difficult problems dealing with quantities.

•以上三个主题句中的划线部分，就分别是三个段落要进行详细阐述与说明的三个概念

下面，看一看如何用定义法将它们扩展成段落•（1）What, then, is generation gap? Generation gap refers to the distance and contradiction between the old and the youth. It's a common phenomenon that exists everywhere in the world and influences both the old and the youth. Generally speaking, generation gap results in different understanding and appreciation of the great and constant changes of the world, different reaction to new things, and different attitudes to traditional principles and belief.

•（2）Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person's point of view. It is a great asset in police work. Bypracticing empathy, police officers can avoid being

closed-minded. It will help them to see all sides of a traffic accident or a criminal incident. Empathy eliminates bias and, instead, introduces tolerance, understanding and sympathetic human relations.

•（3）Mathematics is a step-by-step system of solving increasingly difficult problems dealing with quantities. You took the first step when you learned to add, since addition is a process of finding the sum of groups of numbers. You took another step when you learned to subtract, since subtraction is a process of finding the difference between two numbers. You took another step when you learned to multiply, since multiplication is a process of adding numbers of the same size. You took another step when you learned to divide, since division is a process of finding the number of times one quantity is contained in another.

分析

•在使用这个方法扩展段落时，要注意从不同的角度对主题句中提出的概念加以阐述和说明。比如上面第一个段落，首先从总体的角度对“generation gap”这一概念进行了概括。接着又说明这一现象广泛存在。最后阐述了这一现象会导致的种种结果。这样一来，“generation gap”这一概念不仅得到了准确地表达，而且它的内涵也得到了充分说明。第二个段落主要对“empathy”这个概念从应用的角度予以阐述和说明，从而扩展成段落。不但使读者了解了这一事物的定义，而且通过对它在“police work”中的作用的描述，使读者对其实用性也有所了解。

练一练

•请用定义法将下列主题句扩展成段落，注意从不同的角度对支配思想加以阐述：

•（1）A newspaper is a printed publication.

•（2）Patriotism means love of one's country.

•（3）Public opinion is a powerful thing.

5．比较对比法

在扩展段落的几种方法中，比较对比法也是最常用的方法之一，也比较容易为初学者所掌握。在写作中，为了使自己的观点更有说服力，作者往往愿意采用比较对比的方法来阐述观点，

说明问题。严格地讲，比较对比法可分为比较和对比两种方法。比较法常常指比较两者、两种事物、或两种观点之间的相同点或相似之处。而对比法则恰恰相反，它主要是对比两者、两种事物或两种观点之间的不同之处。但在实际写作中，这两种方法常常一起使用，既比较相同点又对比不同点，以便使文章更有说服力。

请看下面这段文字：

•I have two good friends. They are quite different in character and yet have something in common. One of them is a jolly fellow and fond of company, and the other is a quiet and rather unsociable sort of chap. The jolly one likes all kinds of games. He is clever, but he doesn't care much for books. The other one, however, likes being alone and loves reading. He never plays games. In spite of all these differences, they are both so kind and sympathetic, so honest and straight-forward, so loyal and true. They are both fine and unselfish fellows. I like them both.

分析

•这段文章既写出了作者两位朋友的相同点，又写出了他们之间的不同之处。通过比较和对比，把两个人之间的性格反差描写出来，读起来非常生动。同时，两个人共同具有的一些优良品质也阐述得清清楚楚，一目了然。

方法策略

•在使用比较对比法时，我们可以使用两种方法。

•（1）先把一个人或事物的各种特点全面地介绍阐述后，再描述另一个人或事物的特点，以便进行比较或对比。

•（2）同时对两个人或事物的特点进行逐一的比较和对比。

方法一：

主题句

事物A的特点1、2、3……事物B的特点1、2、3……

结论句方法二：

主题句

事物A的特点1 事物B的特点1

事物A的特点2 事物B的特点2

事物A的特点3 事物B的特点3

结论句

下面请看用不同的两种方法写成的段落：

•Women's fashions tend to change more rapidly and radically than men's. In the early 1900's all women wore their skirts down to the ankle. Today, skirt length varies from floor-length to ten inches above the knee. Women's shoes have also gone through all sorts of changes in the last seventy years. For example, boots for women were very common around the turn of the century. Then, for years, they were not considered fashionable. Today they're back in style again in all colors, lengths, and materials. In fact, today's women can wear all types of clothes even slacks and shorts on almost any occasion. While all of these changes were taking place in women's fashions, men's clothing remained pretty much the same until a couple of years ago. And, in fact, most men still wear the traditional "suit"--jacket, shirt, tie, and slacks--though bright colors, patterns, and a variety in cut are now more common.

分析

•上面这段文章是用第一种方法写成的。段落主题句之后，作者先是写了妇女的服装是如何经常发生变化的，接着才写男人的服装变化如何少、如何缓慢。从而很好地把段落主题句中的支配思想扩展成了一个段落。

再请看下面一段：

•Life in the city is quite different from life in the suburbs. People living in the city are constantly exposed to the hustle and bustle of urban life. But life in the suburbs is generally quiet and casual and generally more

low-key than that in the city. If city dwellers want to see trees and grass, they must go to one of the public parks. On the other hand, the streets of many suburban communities are lined with trees and shrubs and each house has its own grassy yard. A person living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment, but people living in suburban areas must go into the city for entertainment.

分析

•这一段采用的是第二种比较对比法。作者把城市生活与郊区生活的不同点逐一地进行了对比，文章读起来有条有理，令人信服。但是这种写法要注意句式的工整和变化。句式不工整给人以混乱的感觉；句子太没有变化，又令你的考官乏味。

问题思考：哪种方法更好？

•以上所谈到的比较对比的两种方法哪一种更好呢？

•这要根据写作内容而定，形式是为内容服务的。有时候，同样一个内容，用两种不同的方法写会产生不同的效果。

•请看下面两段文字：

（1）

•Cats make better pets than dogs. Dogs are messy, and do not clean up after themselves. They eat too much food, requiring too much care. Besides, dogs jump up on people, and knock over furniture. Cats, on the other hand, are clean and tidy. They eat sparingly, and take care of themselves. Cats are usually

well-mannered pets.

（2）

•Cats make better pets than dog. Dogs are messy, and do not clean up after themselves. Cats, on the other hand, are clean and tidy. Dogs eat too much, requiring too much care. Cats, however, eat sparingly, and take care of themselves. Dogs jump up on people, and knock over furniture. But cats are usually

well-mannered pets.

分析

•上面两段文章主题句完全相同，而且发展句中比较的内容也一样，只是采用的比较方法不一样。第一段用的是分别比较，后一段用的是逐一比较。两种方法都不错。但是，在实际写作中，如果比较的内容比较单纯或集中，可以用分别比较法。如果比较的内容过于庞杂，则最好用逐一比较法。

例外情况咋办？

•还有一种情形，就是比较或对比的双方不是两个人或事物，而是同一人或事物前后的不同，以前与现在的不同，我们同样也可以采用比较对比法。请看：

下面这段是对比、还是比较？怎么扩展的？

•Life in my hometown is quite different today from it was a few years ago. Many changes have taken place. In just a few years my hometown has been transformed from a small country village to a large suburban community. Just a few years ago the children there walked to one small school through apple orchards. Now they go to several schools either by bus or by bike. My hometown used to be a quiet rural town. Now it is bustling and flourishing.

友情提示：

•在使用比较对比法扩展段落时，要注意这样两个问题：•（1）写好主题句；

•（2）选择好比较对比的内容。

提示之一

•（1）写好主题句。在进行比较对比的段落中，主题句中最好讲明两个比较或对比的对象，写出比较或对比的基本内容，并说明两者是相同还是相异。例如：

•①The earth differs from other planets in several respects.

•②My parents look and behave like each other in many ways.

•③Compared with cars, bicycles have many advantages.

•像以上这些主题句，都基本符合我们所说的条件，因此很容易用比较对比法将它们扩展成段落。

提示之二

•（2）选择好比较或对比的内容。我们还以上面三个主题句为例。这三个主题句中规定的内容分别是“differs in several respects”、“like in many ways”及“have many advantages”。这些支配思想都比较含糊，范围也比较宽，但却给作者留下了比较大的选择余地。比如，第二个例子在写“My parents look and behave like each other.”时，可以选择他们的外部特征、性格爱好、教育孩子的方法等几个方面写出他们的相似之处。请看按照这个思路写出的段落：

分析下文•My parents look and behave like each other. Both of my parents have brown hair and brown eyes and both have low voices, and gentle personalities. They both like nature and the outdoors and are fond of walking, gardening, and swimming. They are both interested in reading and music; they never get tired of listening to grand opera. Most of the time they are in agreement on bringing up their children. They both believe in giving their children love and responsibility, and neither one believes in punishing a child physically.

再看另外一篇

•有时，由于篇幅有限，我们选择内容时可以精练些。比如第三个例子中要求写出自行车与汽车比较所具有的优点。下面这个段落就选择了四个方面的内容：

•Compared with cars, bicycles have many advantages. First, they are not very expensive and almost every family can afford to buy and repair them. Secondly, though they run more slowly than cars, bicycles are very handy and convenient. With a bicycle, you can go wherever you like and needn't look for a large parking place in a crowded downtown area or get a garage at home. Thirdly, bicycles don't cause air pollution. On the contrary, they do good to your health. In addition, it is much easier to learn to ride a bicycle than to drive a car.

常用词Similarities

•is similar to

Example: Spring weather in Vancouver is similar to spring weather in Halifax.

•both

Example: Both Vancouver and Halifax have rain in the spring.

•also

Example: Halifax also has a rainy spring season.

•too

Example: Halifax has a rainy spring season, too.

•as well

Example: As well, Halifax has rainy spring season.

常用词Differences

•on the other hand

Example: On the other hand, winter is much colder in Halifax.

•however

Example: However, winter is much colder in Halifax.•but

Example: Vancouver has a mild winter, but Halifax has a cold one.

•in contrast to

Example: In contrast to Vancouver, Halifax has a cold winter.

•differs from

Example: Halifax differs from Vancouver by having a cold winter.

•while

Example: While Vancouver has a mild winter, Halifax has a cold winter.

练一练

•指出下面主题句中哪些适合于用比较对比法扩展成段落：

•（1）My home town is a beautiful place now but it has not always been like that.

•（2）Bicycles, however, have also brought about a lot of problems. •（3）City life is quite different from country life.

•（4）It is clear that health is the foundation of one's future success. •（5）Parents and teenagers often disagree about the amount of freedom and responsibility that the young people are to have.

6．分类法

•分类法实际是举例法和对比法两者结合在一起的一种方法。为了描写上的方便，我们常常对主题句中提出的某些观点、事物举例加以说明。当所举的例子比较多时，我们常常将它们进行分类，并进行比较。这时就需要用分类法或类比法。•请看下面这段文章：

如何分类？分几类？

•When I arrived at the park, I found, to my surprise, that there were so many people there. Besides old people, who are the usual early risers to do Taijiquan boxing, a lot of youngsters were also there, running, jumping or talking. In the east of the park, I even saw an old lady showing some school children and workers how to do sword-play.

分析

•这段文章把作者早上散步时所看到的人分为三类：老人、青年人和一位老太太。这样描写既突出了各类人的特点，又写出了他们的共性——清晨锻炼身体。这是典型的分类法。

•再请看下面的文章：

•According to Comrade Li, the fifteen students of his class fall into three groups. Seven of them work hard and study well. They always get good marks in examinations and are often praised by the teachers. Li calls them "good students". The monitor, the secretary of the Youth League branch, and the captain of the class volleyball team, are quick in finding out what their fellow students are interested in or what they should do as a collective. They always organize proper activities at the proper time, so Li calls them "good organizers". Four other students are very kind to their classmates, always ready to lend them a helping hand. They help to clean the classroom and the corridor even when they are not on duty. Li says that they are "good comrades". "What about yourself?

分析

•这一段文章风趣幽默，成功地用分类法把一个班十五个人的三个类别描写得既生动又具体。在使用这种方法时，也要注意选择那些最有代表性、最能说明问题的事例加以分类和比较。

再看一例

•Examinations fall into three kinds. One is the machine scored “objective”type. In an objective test, the students answer questions by deciding on best choice among a number of alternatives given. Another is the “completion” type. This kind of examination requires the students to add a word or phrase to complete a sentence. And the third type is the essay examination, in which the students are asked to write a composition on a given topic. All these kinds of examinations are designed to reveal what a student may have learned in any particular course.

分析

•本段采用分类法来展开段落。主题句在段落开头，指出“考试可分三种类型”。然后，作者运用One is the machine scored “objective type”, Another is the “completion type”,“And the third type is the essay examination”来清楚地将考试分类阐述，段落脉络一目了然，层次十分分明。

•Nowadays the news media mainly consists of radio, television and newspapers. Each type has its own advantages and disadvantages. Newspapers are the oldest form for communicating the news. Today many people still begin their day by reading the morning paper while having breakfast, and end their day by reading the evening paper while having dinner. The invention of the radio has had a tremendous influence on the world. It is able to bring up-to-minute news to distant places in a matter of seconds. Thus the development of the radio has made the world a smaller place. Television is the most recently developed device for communication. It allows us to see as well as to hear the news. The fact that it enables people to see visual images has had a considerable effect on our perceptions of world event.

•Helper Words:

•is a kind of

•can be divided into

•is a type of

•fall under

•belong to

•is a part of

•fit into

•is grouped with

•is related to

•is associated with

•is a kind of

Coal is a kind of

non-renewable resource. •can be divided into Energy resources can be divided into two types. •is a type of

Coal is a type of

non-renewable resource. •falls under

Coal falls under the category of non-renewable resources. •belongs to

Coal belongs to the category of non-renewable resources.

•is a part of

Coal is a part of the category of non-renewable resources. •fits into

Coal fits into the category of non-renewable resources.

•is grouped with

Coal is grouped with

non-renewable resources.

•is related to

Coal is related to other

non-renewable resources.

•is associated with

Coal is associated with other non-renewable resources.