Lexicology 词汇学
Context 语境
Pragmatics 语用学
Phoneme 音素
Morpheme 词素
Semantic fields 语义场
Lexicology: is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language.
Morphology 形态学
Semantics 语义学
Etymology 词源学
Lexicography 词典学
Morphology is the study of the forms of words and their components, is to look at morphemes and their arrangements in word formation.
构词法
Morphemes: the smallest meaningful units which may constitute words or parts of words.
最小的、有意义的构词单位
Semantics: is often defined as the study of meaning.
Etymology: is the study of the whole history of words.
Lexicography: is closely related to the words in a given language.
What is a word?
Word:is used traditionally to refer to a sequence of letters bounded by spaces.
以空格为界的字母序列
Word: an uninterruptible unit of structure consisting of one or more morphemes.
由一个或多个词素组成的不可分离的结构单元
Word: is viewed as a minimal free form which can occur in isolation and have meaning but which cannot be analyzed into elements which can occur alone and also have meaning. (除复合词)
最小的、有意义的、可存在的、不可分离的语言单位
Major features of words
A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal equipment.
任意的、发声器官 Pitch 音高 Juncture 停顿
A word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else.
The word is uninterruptible unit
A word has to do with its social functional
A word may consist of one or more morphemes
Words are part of the large communication system we call language.
A word occurs typically in the structure of phrases
A word receives some of its meaning as it fills the grammatical slot in a sentence.
Syntax: 句法学
Discourse analysis: 语篇分析
Word classes
Closed classes: preposition pronoun determiner conjunction auxiliary verb
封闭词类:介词 代词 限定词 连词 助动词
Open classes: noun adjective verb adverb
开放词类:名词 形容词 动词 副词
Lexical words(词汇词)= form open classes
Grammatical words(语法词)=closed classes and so on
Inflectional words(8): 名词复数、所有格,动词三单、过去式、过去分词、现在分词,形容词的比较级、最高级。
Derivational words: 前缀、后缀
简单词 simple words
复合词 compound words
复杂词 complex words(加词缀)
Semantic field:as a named area of meaning in which lexemes interrelate and define each other in specific ways.
词位相互关联,并以特定的方式相互定义(若干词的共同的或者相关的词义聚合体)
语义场是在同一个语义系统中,在共时条件下,若干个具有共同义素的义位聚合起来的聚合体
Componential analysis: 成分分析
Chapter 2
Morpheme lexeme morph root stem base polysemy homonymy
词素、词位、形素、词根、词干、词基 一词多义 同形同音异义
Morphemes
The most elemental grammatical units in a language
最基本的语法单位
The ultimate grammatical constitutes, the smallest meaningful units of language.
Lexeme 词位
A unit of lexical meaning, which exists regardless of any inflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain.
An abstract linguistic unit with different variants.
Morph 形素
Any concrete realization of a morpheme in a given utterance is called a morph.
Morphs which are different representations of the same morpheme are referred to as allomorphs of that morpheme.
Allomorphs 词素变体
同一个词素的不同形式
Types of morphemes
Bound morphemes: must be joined to other morphemes (may be prefixes or suffixes)
粘着词素
Free morphemes:need not be attached to other morphemes and can occur by themselves
as individual words.
自由词素
Derivational morphemes: rules are lexical rules of word formation (构词)
派生词素附着于其他词素可派生出新词
1.changes meaning or part of speech of the stem (like-dislike sleep-asleep)
2.indicates semantic relations within the word (lexical meaning)
Inflectional morphemes: are closely related to the rules of syntax(句法)
屈折词素作为语法标记词表词的语法意义,屈折词素只限于词缀,且大都是粘着词素
1.doesn’t change meaning of part of speech of the stem(work-works)
2.indicates syntactic relations between different words in a sentence (grammatical meaning)
词义关系
Two different types of relationship that exist between words and senses
Denotation and Reference
指示关系与所指关系/泛指与特指
Denotation: the relationship that holds between that lexeme and persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities external to the language system.
词位与语言系统外部的,人、物、地点、性质、过程和活动之间的关系
Reference: the relationship of reference holds between an expression and what that expression stands for on particular occasions of its utterance.
取决于具体的话语而非抽象的句子
Sense: a relationship between the words or expressions of a single language
A word may have sense but have no denotation
Seven types of meaning
Conceptual meaning 概念意义
Which is sometimes called denotative or cognitive meaning, refers to meanings as presented in a dictionary.
Connotative meaning 内涵意义
The communicative value of an expression by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.
一种表达的交际价值,它超越了单纯的概念性意旨
内涵意义是不确定和开放的,指涉物的任何特征都可能有助于表达它的内涵意义。
Social meaning 社会意义
Affective meaning 情感意义
Reflected 反映意义
Collocative meaning 搭配意义
Thematic meaning 主题意义
Stem 词干
The word to which affixes are added and which carries the basic meaning of the resulting complex word is known as the stem.
添加词缀并承载由此产生的复杂单词的基本含义的单词被称为词干
词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分
A stem may consist of one or more morphemes.
A stem consisting of a single morpheme is labeled as root
词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后的那部分
Roots which are capable of standing independently are called free morphemes. (morphemes capable of occurring independently)
Bound morphemes: are incapable of occurring independently
The stem is that part of a word that is existence before any inflectional affixes.
词干是词的一部分,它先与屈折词缀而存在
A base is a lexical item to which affixes of any kind can be added.
词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。
All roots are bases, bases are called stem only in the context of inflectional morphology
Polysemy 一词多义
Polysemy refers to the situation in which a word has two or more different meanings.
Homonymy 同形/同音异义
Homonymy refers to a situation in which there are two or more words with the same shape.
Homograph 同形异义
Homophone 同音异义
Chapter 4
Word formation in English 构词法
Inflections attach grammatical information to the stem, but do not change its grammatical category
Affixation is the process whereby an affix is attached to a base
Prefixing 前缀法 suffixing 后缀法
Derivation refers to the creation of a new word by means of the addition of an affix to a stem
A derivation affix can change the part of speech of a word, or it can alter the meaning of a word.
Class changing class maintaining
Compounding 复合法
Compounding refers to the method and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words.
Compounds are stems consisting of more than one root.
Fours types of compounds: endocentric, exocentric, copulative and appositional
向心复合词、离心复合词、并列复合词、同谓复合词
An endocentric compound consists of a head and its modifier(doghouse)
An exocentric compound does not have a head, and its meaning cannot be literally guessed from its constituent parts(white-collar)
A copulative compound has two semantic heads. (sleepwalk)
A appositional compound has two attributes which classify the compound. (maidservant)
化合物中的组成元素对同一参照物有不同的描述
Conversion 转换法(also called functional shift)
Conversion is a process by which a word belonging to one-word class is transferred to another word class without any change in form.
Nominalization 名词化
Blending 混合法
Blending refers to the process of combining parts of two words to form a third word which contains some of the meaning of each part.
混合是指将两个单词的部分组合成第三个单词的过程,第三个单词包含了每个部分的意思
Blending are often found in advertising, product names, and magazine and newspaper headings.
Shortenings 缩略法
Clipping 裁短法 initialisms 首字母缩略
Backformation 逆生法
Backformation is the making of a new word from an older word which is mistakenly assumed to be its derivative
旧词衍生出新词
Proper names 专有名词
Metanalysis 再分化
Metanalysis is a complex process of word formation in English
Chapter 5
Sense relations 语义关系
Synonymy 同义关系
The term synonymy refers to the relationship of sameness of meaning that may hold between words.
词与词之间意义相同
Two types of synonymy
Strict synonymy: refers to the situation in which two synonymous words can be interchangeable in all their possible contexts of use.
Synonym 同义词
Different among synonyms
Geographical varieties
The style or formality (standard or slang)
Connotations 内涵
The use of registers
Etymology (native borrowing)
Collocation
antonymy反义关系
antonymy refers to the relationship of oppositeness of meaning between words.
三种反义词类型:
Gradable antonyms 分级反义词
Gradable antonyms represent a more/less relation and can be viewed as terms at the end-points of a continuum
Intermediate terms 中间过渡
Complementary antonyms 互补性反义词
Also called contradictory antonyms or non-gradable antonyms, are in an either/or relation of oppositeness.
矛盾反义词 对立关系
The assertion of one implies the denial of the other member of the pair.
非此即彼
Converse antonyms 成对反义词
Converse antonyms represent two-way contrasts that are interdependent, such as buy/sell or parent/child
In English, the largest group of antonyms is the gradable adjectives.
Hyponymy 上下义关系
Hyponymy refers to the notion of inclusion whereby we can say that an X’ is a kind of Y’.
Hyponyms 并列下义词
Superordinate 上座标词
Meronymy 整体-部分关系
Meronymy is the part-whole relation in any pair of items.
Collocation 搭配
Collocation is the meaning relations that a word contracts with other words occurring in the same sentence or text.
Free and Fixed combinations
Grammatical collocations
Lexical collocations
Metaphorical extension
A metaphor is an extension of the use of a word beyond its primary meaning to describe referents that bear similarities to the word’s primary referent.
Chapter 8
Meaning shifts 词义转换
Broadening 词义扩展
Narrowing 词义缩小
Amelioration 升华
Pejoration 降格
Chapter 3
Old English period古英语时期 450-1066
The middle English period 1066-1500
Early modern English period 1500-1800
The modern English period 1800-present
Indo-European 印欧语系
Chapter 6
Idioms 习语
An idiom can be defined as a group of words with a meaning of its own that is different from the meanings of each separate words put together.
习语可以定义为一组词,其含义与每个单独的词放在一起的含义不同
An idiom cannot be predicted from its components
Multiword verbs 多词动词
Multiword verbs are units in which the main verb occurs with one or two particles.
Proverbs 谚语
Proverbs are short well known statements that give practical advice about life.
Chapter 8
Dialect 方言
Regional dialect
Social dialect sociolect
Register and style 语体和语域
Taboo words 禁忌语
Euphemisms 委婉语
Slang 俚语
Jargon 行话