A Ballad is a story told in song, usually in four-line stanzas, with the second and fourth lines rhymed.
Romance is the prevailing literary form of literature in the Middle Ages(1000-1453). It was a long composition, sometimes in verse, sometimes in prose, describing the life and adventures of a noble hero.
Heroic Couplet is a rhymed pair of iambic pentameter lines. It was established by Chaucer as a major English verse-form for narrative and other kinds of non-dramatic poetry; it dominated English poetry of the 18th century notably in the poetry of Pope, before declining in importance in the early 19th century.
The Ecologue was a classical form, practiced by Virgil and others; it represents usually in dialogue between shepherds, the moods and feeling and attitudes of the simple life.
Essay is a literary form which can be defined as a short piece of expository prose. The purpose is to inform or explain rather than to dramatize or amuse. Its feature is brevity.
New-classicism is a revival of classical standards of order, balance and harmony in literature in the 17th and 18th centuries in England.
Realism is a mode of writing that gives the impression of recording life as it really is without sentimentalizing or idealizing it. It may be found as an element in the works of Chaucer or Defoe prior to the 19th century, but as a dominant trend in the novels of the middle- or lower class life in the 19th century
The Renaissance in England: Renaissance is the ‘rebirth’ of literature, art and learning that progressively transformed European culture from the mid-14th century in Italy to the mid-17th century in England, strongly influenced by the rediscovery of classical Greek and Latin literature, and accelerated by the development of printing. The Renaissance is commonly held to mark the close of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the modern Western world. In literary terms, the Renaissance may be seen as a new tradition running from Petrarch and Boccaccio in Italy to Jonson and Milton in England, embracing the work of Sidney, Spenser, and Shakespeare; it is marked by a new self-confidence in vernacular literatures, a flourishing of lyric poetry, and a revival of such classical forms as epic and pastoral literature.
The Enlightenment was a progressive intellectual movement throughout the Western Europe in the 18th century. It greatly influenced the English social life and literature. Generally speaking, the Enlightenment movement was an expression of struggle of the bourgeoisie against feudalism. The enlighteners fought against class in equality, prejudices and other survivals of feudalism. They thought the chief means for improving society was “enlightenment” or “education” for the people. The English enlighteners fell into two groups: the moderate and the radical. The moderate includes: Alexander Pope, Joseph Addison and Richard Steele, Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson and Dr. Johnson. The Radical includes such writers as Jonathan Swift, Henry Fielding, Tobias George Smollet, Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Brinsley Sheridan.
Spenserian stanza is a 9-line stanza form with the rhyme scheme of abab bcbc c, invented by Edmund Spenser. The first eight are iambic pentameter lines, and the last line is an iambic hexameter line.
Pastoral, a highly conventional mode of writing that celebrates the innocent life of shepherds and shepherdesses in poems, plays, and prose romances. Pastoral literature describes the loves and sorrows of musical shepherds, usually in an idealized Golden Age of rustic innocence and idleness; paradoxically, it is an elaborately artificial cult of simplicity and virtuous frugality.
Sonnet is a lyric poem consisting of a single stanza of 14 iambic pentameter lines linked by an intricate rhyme scheme. There are two major patterns of rhyme in sonnets written in English. The Italian or Petrarchan sonnet (named after the 14th century Italian poet Petrarch) comprises an octave (8 lines) rhyming abbaabba and a sestet (6 lines) rhyming cdecde or cdccdc. The transition from octave to sestet usually coincides with a ‘turn’ in the argument or mood of the poem. The English or Shakespearean sonnet (named after its greatest practitioner) comprises three quatrains and a final couplet, rhyming ababcdcdefefgg. The ‘turn’ comes with the final couplet, which may sometimes achieve an epigram. There was one notable variant, the Spenserian sonnet, in which Spenser linked each quatrain to the next by a continuing rhyme: abab bcbc cdcd ee. There are three famous sonnet sequences in the Elizabethan Age----Spenser’s Amoretti, Shakespeare’s sonnets and Sidney’s Astrophel and Stella.
Ballad stanza or Ballad metre, the usual form of the folk ballad and its literary imitations, consisting of a quatrain in which the first and third lines have four stresses while the second and fourth have three stresses. Usually only the second and fourth lines rhyme. The rhythm is basically iambic.
The Metaphysical Poets: John Dryden said in his Discourse Concerning Satire (1693) that John Donne in his poetry “affects the metaphysics,” meaning that Donne employs the terminology and abstruse arguments of the medieval Scholastic philosophers. In 1779 Samuel Johnson extended the term “metaphysical” from Donne to a school of poets in his “Life of Cowley.” The name is now applied to a diverse group of 17th-century English poets whose work is notable for its ingenious use of intellectual and theological concepts in surprising conceits, strange paradoxes and far-fetched imagery. The leading metaphysical poet was John Donne, whose colloquial, argumentative abruptness of rhythm and tone distinguishes his style from the conventions of Elizabethan love lyrics. Other poets to whom the label is applied include Andrew Marvell, Abraham Cowley, John Cleveland and the predominantly religious poets George Herbert, Henry Vaughan and Richard Crashaw.
Conceit: an unusually far-fetched or elaborate metaphor or simile presenting a surprisingly apt parallel between two apparently dissimilar things or feelings. Poetic conceits are prominent in Elizabethan love sonnets, in metaphysical poetry. Conceits often employ the devices of hyperbole, paradox and oxymoron. Originally meaning a concept or image, conceit came to be the term for figures of speech which establish a striking parallel, usually ingeniously elaborate, between two very dissimilar things or situations.
The Cavalier poets are a group of English lyric poets who were active, approximately, during the reign of Charles I (1625-10). This group includes Richard Lovelace, Sir John Suckling, Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew, and Waller. These poets virtually abandoned the sonnet form which had been the favoured medium for love poems for a century. They were considerably influenced by Ben Jonson. Their lyrics are light, witty, elegant and, for the most part, concerned with love. They show much technical virtuosity.
Carpe Diem: a tradition theme dating back to classical Greek and Latin poetry and particularly popular among the English Cavalier poets. Carpe Diem means, literally, “seize the day”, that is, “live for today.” The Carpe Diem theme is epitomized in a line from Robert Herrick’s “To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time”: “Gather ye rosebuds while ye may.”
Blank verse is the verse written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. It is the verse form used in some of the greatest English poetry, including that of William Shakespeare and John Milton.
Elegy: a poem of mourning, usually over the passing of life and beauty or a meditation on the nature of death. An elegy is a type of lyric poem, usually formal in language and structure, and solemn or even melancholy in tone.
Epitaph: an inscription on a gravestone or a short poem written in memory of someone who has died. Many epitaphs are actually epigrams, or short witty sayings, and are not intended for serious use as monument inscriptions.
Pre-romanticism: a general term applied by modern literary historians to a number of developments in late 18th century culture that are thought to have prepared the ground of Romanticism in its full sense. In various ways, these are all departures from the orderly framework of neoclassicism and its authorized genres.
A Song is a short lyric poem with distinct musical qualities, normally written to be set to music. It expresses a simple but intense emotion. Byron’s “She Walks in Beauty” is a song.
Romanticism: a movement that flourished in literature, philosophy, music and art in Western culture during most of the 19th century, beginning as a revote against classicism. There have been many varieties of Romanticism in many different times and places.
Many of the ideas of English Romanticism were first expressed by William Wordsworth and Samuel Talor Coleridge. It prevailed in England during the period 1798-1832. Romanticists expressed the ideology and sentiment of those classes and social strata that were discontent with and opposed to the development of capitalism. They split into two groups because of the different attitudes toward the capitalist society.
The Passive Romantic poets or the Lake poets are represented by Wordsworth, Coleridge and Southey. The Active or Revolutionary Romantic poets are represented by Byron, Shelley and Keats.
Ode: a complex lyric poem of some length, dealing with a noble theme in a dignified manner and originally intended to be sung. Odes are often written for a special occasion, to honor a person or a season or to commemorate an event.
Terza Rima: it is an Italian verse form consisting of a series of three-line stanzas in which the middle line of each stanza rhymes with the first and third lines of the following stanza as follows aba bcb cdc etc. Shelley’s “Ode to the West Wind” is partly written in terza rima.
Dramatic Monologue: a kind of narrative poem in which one character speaks to one or more listeners whose replies are not given in the poem. The occasion is usually a crucial one in the speaker’s life, and the dramatic monologue reveals the speaker’s personality as well as the incident that is the subject of the poem.
The Victorian Period: the beginning of the Victorian Period is frequently dated from 1837 to 1901 (the reign of Queen Victoria). Much writing of the period dealt with or reflected the pressing social, economic, religious and intellectual issues and problems of that era.
Among the notable poets were Alfred Tennyson, Robert Browning, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Christina Rossetti, Matthew Arnold and Gerard Manley Hopkins. The chief characteristics of the Victorian poetry are its moralizing tendencies, its overpadding of extra-poetic matter, and its traditional iambic pentameter.
Chapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics
● What is language?
⏹ Different definitions of language
◆ Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)
◆ [Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)
◆ Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.
⏹ Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence of language, but all of them have left out something. We must see the multi-faceted nature of language.
⏹ As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
● Features of human language
⏹ Creativity
◆ Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding brand new messages.
◆ The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.
⏹ Duality
◆ Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings.
◆ Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.
◆ Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences of speech sounds.
⏹ Arbitrariness
◆ The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.
◆ There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.
Displacement
◆ There is no limit in time or space for language.
◆ Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.
⏹ Cultural transmission
◆ Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.
◆ Language is a way of transmitting culture.
⏹ Interchangeability
◆ All members of a speech community can send and receive messages.
⏹ Reflexivity
◆ Human languages can be used to describe themselves.
◆ The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.
● Functions of language – three meta-functions
⏹ The ideational function
◆ To identify things, to think, or to record information.
⏹ The interpersonal function
◆ To get along in a community.
⏹ The textual function
◆ To form a text.
● Types of language
⏹ Genetic classification
⏹ Typological classification
◆ Analytic language – no inflections or formal changes, grammatical relationships are shown through word order, such as Chinese and Vietnamese
◆ Synthetic language – grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the words, typically by changing the inflectional endings, such as English and German
◆ Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long sequence of units, with each unit expressing a particular grammatical meaning, such as Japanese and Turkish
Chapter 2
● What is phonetics?
⏹ Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.
⏹ Sub-branches of phonetics
◆ Articulatory phonetics – the production of speech sounds
◆ Acoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech sounds
◆ Auditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds
● The speech organs
⏹ Where does the air stream come from?
◆ From the lung
⏹ What is the function of vocal cords?
◆ Controlling the air stream
⏹ What are the cavities?
◆ Oral cavity
◆ Pharyngeal cavity
◆ Nasal cavity
● Transcription of speech sounds
⏹ Units of representation
◆ Segments (the individual sounds)
⏹ Phonetic symbols
◆ The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
◆ The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.
◆ In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.
● Description of speech sounds
⏹ Description of English consonants
◆ General feature: obstruction
The myth of language – language origin
⏹ The Biblical account
◆ Language was God’s gift to human beings.
⏹ The bow-wow theory
◆ Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.
⏹ The pooh-pooh theory
◆ Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.
⏹ The yo-he-ho theory
◆ Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.
⏹ The evolution theory
◆ Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.