
毕 业 论 文
《傲慢与偏见》对话中的言语行为
姓 名: * *
学 号: *************
学 院: 应用文理学院
专 业: 英语语言文化
指 导 教 师: **
2010 年 4 月 25 日
Speech Act in the conversations of Pride and Prejudice
A Thesis Submitted
To
The Department of Foreign Languages and Culture
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts
in the Subject of
English Language and Literature
By
Li Shuo
Directed By
Du Ning
College of Arts and Sciences, Beijing Union University
Beijing
April 2010
摘 要
言语行为理论,最早由牛津大学语言学家John L. Austin所创建,后来美国语言学家John R. Searle在其基础上将言语行为理论发展壮大。它作为语用学的一类,近年来被广泛应用到文学分析中。之所以可以将言语行为理论与文学作品相结合,一方面是因为文学作品可以为理论分析提供丰富的语料,另一方面从该角度对文学作品进行分析也可以帮我们更好地理解文学作品。随着语用学的发展壮大,这种文学与语言学的结合形式必将迈入一个新的纪元。本文将以语言学家塞尔的言语行为理论为框架,以英国著名作家简.奥斯丁的代表作之一《傲慢与偏见》为文本,着重从言外作用角度即:阐述类、指令类、承诺类、表达类和宣告类这五种基本言语行为对小说主人公伊丽莎白与达西的对话进行分析和解读,从而反应出小说人物之间的矛盾冲突,并进一步验证了用言语行为理论对文学作品进行赏析的可行性。
关键词:言语行为,言外作用,偏见
Abstract
Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use, which was originated with the Oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin and then developed by the American philosopher John R. Searle. As one of the means in pragmatics, it can deal with particular utterances in literature works because on one hand, literature works offer resourceful raw materials for linguistic study; one the other hand, the use of linguistic theory in the literature gives us a better understanding of the works. With the development of pragmatics especially the speech act theory, its combination with literature leads us into a new era. Accordingly, the present research, on the basis of Searle’s speech act theory will analyze the illocutionary force in the conversation between Elizabeth and Darcy under various settings in Pride and Prejudice to interpret Elizabeth’s prejudice against Darcy.
Key words: speech act theory, illocutionary forces, prejudice
Contents
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………1
1 Classification of Speech Acts……………………………………………….…….2
1.1Three Levels of Speech Acts….…………………………………………………..2
1.2 Classification of Illocutionary Acts……………………………………………....3
2 Analysis of Illocutionary Acts in Pride and Prejudice…………………………..4
2.1 Elizabeth and Darcy’s Conversation in Pride and Prejudice as Assertives……….5
2.2 Elizabeth and Darcy’s Conversation in Pride and Prejudice as Directives….........6
2.3 Elizabeth and Darcy’s Conversation in Pride and Prejudice as Commissives……7
2.4 Elizabeth and Darcy’s Conversation in Pride and Prejudice as Expressives..........9
2.5 Elizabeth and Darcy’s Conversation in Pride and Prejudice as Declarations…....9
Conclusion……………………………………………………………..……………..9
Works Cited…………………………………………………………………………10
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………...11
Acknowledgements.………………………………………………...…………...….11
Introduction
Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use, which was originated with the Oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin (胡, 186), and then developed by the American philosopher John R. Searle. It is under Searle’s influence that the study of performatives becomes the study of “speech acts”. Most of the major terminology of the subject today comes from Searle. According to Vanhoozer’s delightful characterization, “If Austin is the Luther of speech act philosophy, John Searle may be considered its Melanchthon—its systematic theologian” (Briggs, qtd.in Vanhoozer 209)
Speech act theory, as one of the means in Pragmatics, can deal with particular utterances in literature works because on one hand, literature works offer resourceful raw materials for linguistic study; one the other hand, the use of linguistic theory in the literature gives us a better understanding of the works. With the development of pragmatics especially the speech act theory, its combination with literature creates a new era. Marry Louise Pratt, in her book Toward a Speech Act Theory of Literary Discourse demonstrates that “There is no valid reason to assume that language stops being itself when it enters a literary work…it is both possible and necessary to develop a unified theory of discourse which allows us to talk about literature in the same terms we use to talk about all the other things people do with language” (朱小舟, qtd.in Patt 14 ).
Pride and Prejudice, one of the well-known English novels, offers an excellent literature raw material for people to analyze Speech Act Theory which has been studied by many predecessors through the combination of other linguistic theories, such as irony theory and conversational theory. In an essay called THE PRAGMATICAL PENETRATION IN PRIDE AND PREJUDICE——The Reflection of Speech Act Theory and Violations of Cooperative Principle in Pride and Prejudice, the author pays attention to the illocutionary meaning in the novel based on Searle’s Speech Act Theory and Grice’s Cooperative Principle to analyze its characters’ conversations and behaviors to show the novel’s artistic charm. Moreover the author also focuses on how these theories are used in the novel to reflect the personality and theme. (吕,113)
According to the former studies, this paper will take Jane Austin’s masterpiece Pride and Prejudice as the target text in which the story’s overall meaning resides to a large extent in the particular speech acts performed by the two protagonists in their communication with each other, in which these individual speech acts are sequenced in the story, and in the way the figural speech acts are contextualized with speech acts on the level of narrative transmission.
1 Classification of Speech Acts
1.1Three Levels of Speech Acts
There are three levels of a speech act, i.e. locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act, according to Searle. The first level means when we speak we produce a sound, word, or sentence. The act performed in this sense is called locutionary act. The second one is the real action which is performed by the utterance where saying equals doing, and the act performed here is known as an illocutionary act. The third one is the effects of the utterance on the hearer who accepts the utterance. The act performed in this sense is called a perlocutionary act (胡, 447). The relationship of the three levels can be illustrated by Darcy’s utterance to Elizabeth: I love you.
Locution: Darcy uttered the words I love you which can be semantically paraphrased as: ‘I have already fallen in love with you’.
Illocution: Darcy performed the act of expressing his adoration to Elizabeth or we can say that Darcy was performing the act of proposing in Pride and Prejudice.
We need to distinguish between the illocution and the locution because different locutions can have the same illocutionary force. Similarly, the same locution can have different illocutionary forces in terms of the context. For example, it is cold here could either be a request to close the window or an offer to close the window.
Perlocution is the actual result of the locution. It may or may not be what the speaker wants to happen but it is caused by the locution. For example, Darcy’s utterance could have any of the following perlocutions: Darcy persuaded Elizabeth to marry him; Elizabeth refused to marry him; Elizabeth was offended, etc. However, according to the epitasis, Jane Austin chose the most reasonable one to unfold the story. So the perlocution is defined by the hearer’s reaction.
1.2Classification of Illocutionary Acts
There are two versions about the classification of illocutionary acts---John Austin’s and John Searle’s. According to Austin’s theory, he distinguished and classified speech acts into the following types: Verdictives, Exercitives, Commissives, Behabitives, Expositives. In his book How to Do Things with Words, Austin gave a brief summary of the five definitions: To sum up, we may say that the verdictive is an exercise of judgement, the verdicitive is an assertion of influence of judgment, the exercitive is an assertion of influence or exercising of power, the commissive is an assuming of an obligation or declaring of an intention, the behabitive is the adopting of an attitude, and the expositive is the clarifying of reasons, arguments, and communications.(p163) Although Austin first put forward the classification, Searle’s improvement is the best-known. As he said “I think they form an excellent basis for discussion but I also think that the taxonomy needs to be seriously revised because it contains several weaknesses.” (P8) Compared to his predecessor,Searle’s subsequent classification shows some improvement. In his book Speech Acts, Searle defined speech act as “the production or issuance of a sentence taken under certain conditions”.(Searle Speech Acts 16) He also set out to combine all of the former research on this area to give an account of so-called 'illocutionary acts' of which he gave a specific classification in his book Expression and Meaning, namely, Assertives, Directives, Commissives, Expressive and Declarations (Searle Expression and Meaning 38).
With the emergence of Searle’s classification of illocutionary force, speech act theory no longer simply concerned itself as Austin’s theory, and language became more flexible and practical. In Searle’s view, ‘there are a rather limited number of basic things we do with language: we tell people how things are, we try to get them to do things, we commit ourselves to doing things, We bring about changes in the world through our utterances (Searle Expression and Meaning 29), from which we can see speech-act theory has obvious potential for assisting in the interpretation of texts.
2 Analysis of Illocutionary Acts in Pride and Prejudice
2.1 Elizabeth and Darcy’s Conversation in Pride and Prejudice as Assertives
The point or purpose of the member of the assertive class is to commit the speaker (in varying degree) to something being the case, to the truth of the expressed proposition. All the members of the assertive class are assessable on the dimension of assessment which includes truth and falseness. The direction of fit is words to the world; the psychological state expressed is Belief. (Searle Expression and Meaning 12).
In the novel Pride and Prejudice, when Elizabeth went to Mr. Bingley’ house to see her ill sister, there was a discussion about Darcy’s character. Elizabeth once commented:
“I am perfectly convinced by it that Mr. Darcy has no defect. He owns it himself without disguise.”
Judging from the surface, these words are not assertives, but everyone knows that nobody is perfect so why Elizabeth was convinced that Darcy had no defect? Obviously, she held the opposite meaning. The simplest test to see whether it is an assertive or not is to seek out the true condition of the statement “everyone has defect”; and surly the answer here is: “It is true”. Sarcasm, as the illocutionary point of this speech act, plays an important role here. The direction of fit is words to the world, knowing the reality that Darcy cannot be perfect, and our heroine smartly expressed her dissatisfaction in an indirect way. This expression shows Elizabeth’s impression of Darcy and her prejudice against this “arrogant” gentleman.
Another expression played as a speech act with the illocutionary force of assertive occurred when Elizabeth refused to dance with Darcy at Lucas’ ball.
----“Mr. Darcy is all politeness” (Austin,18)
It seems to be a compliment to the gentleman, and however, it is inappropriate to be used as a girl’s resistance, so this is another trap set by Elizabeth. By overhearing the conversation between Darcy and Bingley, she was irritated by Darcy’s remark on her---only tolerable. Standing in our heroine’s view, Darcy’s behavior was indeed less polite; therefore the direction of fit is words to the world. For the illocutionary point of this speech act, Elizabeth tells us a fact that Darcy offended her, and the psychological state expressed is belief because it represents Elizabeth’s willingness to criticize the rude gentleman, so that she could reach the purpose of embarrassing the hero and achieving a sense of complacency herself. In this expression, Elizabeth performed the speech act adversely in order to satire the arrogant wealthy man, which fulfills its function as assertive and also reveals that Elizabeth‘s prejudice against Darcy is getting deeper and deeper.
2.2 Elizabeth and Darcy’s Conversation in Pride and Prejudice as Directives
The illocutionary point of these consists in the fact that they are attempts (of varying degrees, and hence, more precisely, they are determinates of the determinable which includes attempting) by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. The direction of fit is world-to-words and the sincerity condition is want (or wish or desire). The propositional content is always that the hearer does some future action.( Searle Expression and Meaning 14).
In the ball held at Mr. Bingley’s house, Darcy and Elizabeth had their first dance, worrying their silence was to last through the two dances, Elizabeth addressed Darcy:
--“It is your turn to say something now, Mr Darcy.—I talked about the dance, and you ought to make some kind of remark on the size of the room, or the number of couples.”(Austin, 63)
This is a typical directive in this novel. At that time, it would look odd to be entirely silent when people were dancing together; Elizabeth had already tried to oblige his partner to talk, but in vain, so she had to direct him to take some action. We know that the direction of fit is world-to-words, so Elizabeth made the request and Darcy followed in order to break the embarrassing atmosphere. Although Elizabeth succeeded in making Darcy talk, his silence left a bad impression on her. The illocutionary point of her expression is not simply to find some subjects to communicate with him but to tease him with some boring questions as well. Obviously, prejudice was impregnated with Elizabeth’s mind; she wanted to make fun of his arrogant partner.
Apart from that, there is another conversation showing the illocutionary force as directive.
----Darcy: “This walk is not wide enough for our party. We had better go into the avenue.”
----Elizabeth: “No, no; stay where you are,--You are charmingly grouped, and appear to uncommon advantage. The picturesque would be spoilt by admitting a four. Goodbye.” (Austin, 37)
In the dialogue, Elizabeth misunderstood Darcy’s good intention. When Miss Bingley left Elizabeth to join the other two, Darcy suggested walking into the avenue so that they four could walk together. However, Elizabeth could not accurately grasp Darcy’ kindness and made an offer to leave alone. Although Elizabeth had not the least inclination to remain with them, she still felt humiliated by Darcy’s words. “Stay where you are” is a speech act with the illocutionary force of a directive. Because of the difference of their status, Elizabeth was very sensitive; she didn’t want to be looked down upon by those wealthy people, so she directed Darcy to be grouped charmingly without her. Its illocutionary point is to express that she doesn’t belong to them and she is unwilling to associate with those self-righteous wealthy people. She followed the direction of fit from world to words, making the propositional order with sarcasm to get herself distinguished from those people she disliked. This clause achieves its illocutionary force to show Elizabeth’s misunderstanding and prejudice against Darcy. In that case, their conversation fulfills its function as a speech act with the illocutionary force of directive.
2.3 Elizabeth and Darcy’s Conversation in Pride and Prejudice as Commissive
Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker (again in varying degree) to some future course of action. The direction of fit is world-to-word and the sincerity condition is Intention. The propositional content is always that the speaker does some future action.( Searle Expression and Meaning 15)
The most representative commissives in Pride and Prejudice comes from Darcy’s proposing marriage to Elizabeth.
---D: “In vain have I struggled. It will not do. My feeling will not be repressed. You must allow me to tell you how ardently I admire and love you.” (Austin, 128)
---E: “…I felt that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed on to marry” (Austin, 131)
Both of them can be considered the illocutionary act of commissives. When Darcy promised Elizabeth that he loved her, he was under great pressure; the feeling of superiority made him difficult to make self-revealing to a girl of bourgeoisie. However, he made it. The illocutionary point of this promise is to commit the speaker to pursuing happiness of his own. The direction of fit between words and the world is the world to the words. There are words first and Darcy follows the words with his actions to ask Elizabeth to marry him. The psychological state expressed here is intention. Darcy expressed a kind of attitude and his determination to love her. However, Elizabeth was not moved by Darcy’s promise. As the prejudice accumulated, Elizabeth regarded the illocutionary point as a kind of joke. His sense of her inferiority, and the sense of being a degradation of his family further convinced her that Darcy’s love was opposed to inclination. She seemed to have every reason in the world to think ill of him and she never believed Darcy’s promise and even was triggered by the gentleman’s explanation to announce: she promised never to marry Darcy.
Elizabeth’s refusal to Darcy’s proposal is another illocutionary of commissives. In the refusal, it showed her attitude to Darcy; she owed every fault to Darcy: Jane’s separation with Mr. Bingley; Mr. Wickhman’s misfortune and his farouche character. The illocutionary point in this speech act is that the speaker will take some future course of action to expose Darcy’s arrogance and his true intention to propose marriage. The direction of fit from the words to world made it possible for Elizabeth to follow her promise and occasion pain to Darcy in order to take revenge on him because of her prejudice against him. The psychological state expressed is also intention. Elizabeth had created the obligation, which provided Darcy with a promise that he didn’t deserve her love because his manners impressed her with the fullest belief of his arrogance, his conceit and a selfish disdain of the feelings of others. In that case, the pair’s performance fulfills its function as a speech act with the illocutionary force of commissive.
2.4 Elizabeth and Darcy’s Conversation in Pride and Prejudice as Expressive
The illocutionary point of this class is to express the psychological state specified in the sincerity condition about a state of affairs specified in the propositional content. Notice that in expressives there is no direction of fit. In performing an expressive, the speaker is neither trying to get the world to match the words nor the words to match the world, rather the truth of the expressed proposition is presupposed. (Searle Expression and Meaning 15)
In Pride and Prejudice, when Elizabeth mentioned her sister’s dissolution of engagement with Mr. Bingley, Darcy said:
“I have no wish of denying that I did everything in my power to separate my friend from your sister or that I rejoice in my success. Towards him I have been kinder than towards myself” (Austin,130)
This is a typical expressive. Darcy was expressing his own feelings about this marriage; he didn’t believe this marriage was as pure as Elizabeth thought because the two families’ status made a world of difference. Elizabeth definitely disagreed on that; however, it doesn’t matter because these words only represent Darcy’s—the speaker’s point of view. So there is no direction of fit between words and the world. The psychological state expressed here is a kind of doubt. As a rich man and also Mr. Bingley’s friend, Darcy was distinguished from Elizabeth. He cared more about the marriage’s intrinsic motivation and more about his friend’s happiness, and maybe he misunderstood her sister’s shyness as a kind of indifference but only for his own thinking.
As the illocutionary force, this kind of expressive totally triggered Elizabeth, who mentioned Mr. Wickham’s affair to inflict on Darcy and owed all the Wickham’s misfortune to Darcy’s fault. Elizabeth’s prejudice here accelerated and reached the climax of the story. Finally, Darcy felt exhausted by Elizabeth’s strong prejudice and replied:
“And this is your opinion of me! This is the estimation in which you hold me! I thank you for explaining it so fully!” (Autin,131)
As another typical expressive, Darcy’s thank was not trying to get the world to match the words nor the words to match the world, because in the view of Miss Elizabeth, the truth is presupposed that Darcy deprived the best years of Wickham’ life. When he expressed thanks for Elizabeth’s explaining it so fully, it is not his purpose either to defend himself or tell the truth; the speaker just wanted a release of his emotion. And this raised the Elizabeth’s dissatisfaction towards Darcy; she regarded the thanks as an illocutionary force to satirize her, and she didn’t understand why Darcy could not lay down his arrogance and admitted his fault. Thus the Elizabeth’s prejudice drives the plot to the climax.
2.5 Elizabeth and Darcy’s Conversation in Pride and Prejudice as Declarations
It is the defining characteristic of this class that the successful performance of one of its members brings about the correspondence between the propositional content and reality, successful performance guarantees that the propositional content corresponds to the world.( Searle Expression and Meaning 16 )
Declaration, as a special illocutionary act, is not easily to be achieved. There is no sincerity condition, since no personal attitude is involved in declarations. The speaker must be a person who is in a certain position; he is not expressing any psychological state of his own. For example, not everyone has the authority to declare the foundation of the People's Republic of China. In Pride and Prejudice, there is no such an example functioning as a speech act with the illocutionary force of declaration in Elizabeth and Darcy’s conversation, which reveals the particularity and misdistribution of declaration in our daily conversation. Both Elizabeth and Darcy are not in the referred status or condition, so their performance cannot guarantee the propositional content corresponds to the world.
Conclusion
Basically, speech acts are made up of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. Focusing on Searle’s classification of illocutionary act, this paper has been trying to unfold the assertives, commisives, expressives, directives and declarations in Elizabeth and Darcy’s conversations in Pride and Prejudice. Taking the particularity of declaration into consideration, most parts of the thesis analyses the first four types with the conversations chosen from the novel. By the analysis of the direct or indirect conversation between Elizabeth and Darcy, the above research has illustrated some examples to reflect speech act involved in people’s communication and it has also shown that the protagonists’ conflict in the novel, namely Elizabeth’s prejudice against Darcy is not formed in one day. And the illocutionary act plays an important role to show the reinforced prejudice, thus in a way affecting the conflict of the novel.
Works Cited
Austin, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Great Britain: Wordsworth Editions Limited, 1993.
Briggs, Richard S. “The Use of Speech Act Theory in Biblical Interpretation”.qtd.in J. K. Vanhoozer. Is there a Meaning in this Text? The Bible, the Reader, and the Morality of Literary Knowledge Grand Rapids: Zongdervan, 1998
Searle, John R. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Beijing: Foreign Language and Research Press, 2001.
Searle, John R. Expression and Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts. Beijing: Foreign Language and Research Press, 2001
胡壮麟, 姜望琪主编. 语言学高级教程. 北京: 北京大学出版社, 2002.
吕代珍. 《傲慢与偏见》中的语用学渗透—言语行为理论与违背合作原则的体现. 巢湖学院学报, 2007(6):113-117
朱小舟. “《傲慢与偏见》中的微观反讽言语行为”, 四川外国语学院学报 2002(4):15
qtd.in L.M. Patt, Toward a speech Act Theory of Literature Discourse. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1997.7
Bibliography
Austin, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Great Britain: Wordsworth Editions Limited, 1993.
Austin, John L. How to Do Things with words. Beijing: Foreign Language and Research Press, 2002.
Briggs, Richard S. “The Use of Speech Act Theory in Biblical Interpretation”.
Searle, John R. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Beijing: Foreign Language and Research Press, 2001.
Searle, John R. Expression and Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts. Beijing: Foreign Language and Research Press, 2001
胡壮麟, 姜望琪主编. 语言学高级教程. 北京: 北京大学出版社, 2002.
吕代珍. 《傲慢与偏见》中的语用学渗透—言语行为理论与违背合作原则的体现. 巢湖学院学报, 2007(6):113-117
朱小舟. “《傲慢与偏见》中的微观反讽言语行为”, 四川外国语学院学报 2002(4):15
Acknowledgements
On the completion of my graduating paper, I wish to express my thanks to all who have given me their care and help. From the reference to the theme of this paper, my tutor Du Ning and my essay teacher Chen Jianhua have promoted me to widen my views and themes in a special way.
Special thanks to my tutor, Du Ning without whom none of these would be well completed. She pours attention and accesses great understanding to this paper.
