
Values are useful in explaining and understanding cultural similarities and differences in behaviors; thus, understanding values and their cultural basis is helpful for managers in international business. If they understand they understand how values vary from culture to culture, they are more likely to accept and interpret correctly behavioral differences. This acceptance and correct interpretation, in turn, enables managers to interact effectively with others whose values and behaviors are different.
Every culture has its ways of doing things in daily life, such as ways of eating, drinking, dressing, finding shelters, making friends, marrying, and dealing with death. People have to learn the cultural ways of their community to satisfy their basic human needs. These ways are not something that people in the group are born with. Instinctive behavior, on the other hand, is a pattern of behavior that an animal is born with. Spiders spinning their webs is an example. The mother spider does not teach her babies how to spin webs. In fact, she is not even there when they are born. Young spiders know how to do it when they are born.
We have to remember that, most of the time, the different customs of different cultures are neither right nor wrong. It is simply that different people do things in different manners.
Although each of us has a unique set of values, there are also values that tend to permeate a culture. These are called cultural values.
1.1 Comparison between Chinese values and Western values
Many scholars have written about cultural differences between the West and the East. Among these differences between the west and the east, three are highlighted here: cognition(认知), relationship with nature(与自然的关系), and the concept of truth(对真理的认知). Western people are said to incline to think in a linear fashion(线形思维). A cause leads to an effect. In Eastern culture, a cause can lead to an effect and it can be an effect as well. Past, present and future are interconnected and affect one another(思维). Western culture tends to be oriented toward mastery over nature(人定胜天) while Eastern culture seeks harmony with nature(和谐共存). Regarding the concept of truth, the view of Western culture on ultimate truth or reality is based more on scientific and empirical explanation(科学实证) while that of Eastern culture is based more on existing truth(眼见为实). Cultural differences between the East and the West have a significant impact on the communication behavior and pattern. As a result of the differences in cognition, relationship with nature and the concept of truth, people from the West and the East are further different in the following aspects.
Differences in expressing gratitude. The Chinese who are close to each other seldom express their gratitude(表达感激) in public or in words. A mother is busy in the kitchen. She suddenly asks her son to fetch a bowl for her. Then the son does so. The mother just continues cooking without any word of gratitude. Later at table, the mother hands her son a bowl of rice. The son just takes it and begins eating without any word of gratitude either. If such a situation happens in the United States, both the mother and her son will say "thanks" or "thank you" for fetching the bowl and serving the rice.
Differences in Symbolization(象征,符号化) Symbolization is how people imagine or regard something. It actually reflects the way people think. The Chinese and Westerners are different in symbolizing. In the APEC summit(峰会) held in Shanghai in 2001, with the closing day coming, Presidents from all over the world were invited to wear the traditional Chinese Tang suits for a photo together. The Tang suits were ready, and then the Presidents were asked to choose the colors of the suits by themselves. However, it was quite interesting to find that most of the Easterners chose red while most of the Westerners preferred blue. Red means luck and fortune in most Eastern cultures but stands for blood, revolution in the West. Blue means something noble or significant in the Western culture.
Differences in attitudes toward women. The Chinese and Westerners are different in attitudes toward women. "Ladies First" has a long history in the West. For example, a respectable elderly gentleman is having dinner with a young lady in a restaurant. In China, it is normally the elderly man who gets the service first, because hierarchy is prevalent in China and it is the elderly or the superior who is supposed to get special respect. But in the West, it is likely the young lady who is first served because of their "Ladies First" tradition.
1.2 Comparison between Chinese values and American values
It is true that Chinese people and American people enjoy different cultures, which influence their life, customs and behaviors, beliefs and values, aesthetic and interest. The following is going to provide us with a better understanding of the differences between Chinese and American cultures.
Differences in friendship. Friendship means a lot to the Chinese. There is a Chinese saying: "One more friend, one more road." Whenever they have made friends with someone, they will try all their efforts to make the friendship as close as possible, and keep him as a lifelong friend. Lifelong friends feel deeply obligated to give each other whatever help might be required. Americans, however, change their friends and acquaintances over time and have limited mutual obligation. They will try to help their friends in difficulty with some advice but avoid making a decision for them.
Differences in time consciousness. The Chinese relatively pay more attention to the past. They cherish old classmates and friends. If they happen to visit a city, they will squeeze their time to have a get-together with friends there. Americans usually are less interested in the past. Instead, they focus on what is going on for the time being. They believe that life is like a fast moving train. If you miss it, you are out of date.
Differences in conception of the self. The Chinese are collectivist(集体主义者), placing high value on group cooperation and individual modesty. So many Chinese are used to beginning their English conversation with “My English is poor.” Americans are individualist(个人主义者), placing high value on self-reliance and freedom from externally imposed constraints(外界约束). At the beginning of a presentation, the American will say: "I believe that my presentation will be of great value to anybody present."
Differences in approaches to tasks. The Chinese are relationship-oriented. They often maintain a harmonious relationship with some people, which has priority over accomplishing tasks. They don't care as much about schedules or timelines. Meetings may run long. Americans are task-oriented. They focus on a scheduled timeline and would like to do one thing at a time. In their opinion, relationships are less important than getting the work done.
Differences in social relationships. The Chinese have formal and hierarchical social relationships. They feel uncomfortable while they are chatting with someone who holds a higher position. Americans have informal and egalitarian(平等主义) social relationships. People tend to minimize the importance of social rankings.
2. Cultural Dimensions 文化纬度
For those who work in international business, it is sometimes amazing how different people in other cultures behave. We tend to have a human instinct that all people are the same—but they are not. Therefore, if we go to another country and make decisions based on how we operate in our own country, the chances are we will make some poor decisions. Geert Hofstede’s research gives us insights into other cultures so that we can be more effective when interacting with people in other countries.
Geert Hofstede is an international authority on intercultural social psychology. He analyzed a large database of employee values scores collected by IBM between 1967 and 1973 covering more than 70 countries, from which he first used the 40 largest only, and afterward extended the analysis to 50 countries and 3 regions. In the editions of his work since 2001, scores are listed for 74 countries and regions, partly based on replications(复制) and extensions of the IBM study on different international populations. From the initial results, and later additions, Hofstede developed a model that identifies four primary dimensions for differentiating cultures: power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity and uncertainty avoidance. The value survey model has been widely discussed in international management literature and it appears to provide information of relevance from a managerial point of view.
2.1 Power Distance 权力距离
Power distance means the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country, expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. It just shows how much subordinates can consent(赞同) or dissent(不赞同) with their superiors. It is the distance between the superior and the subordinate. Among most oriental(东方的) corporate cultures, there is hierarchism(等级制度), greater centralization, sometimes called “poser-oriented culture,” due to historical reasons. The superiors make the decision and are entitled more privileges(). Their decisions and supervision are always positively evaluated by subordinates. In this situation, it does not matter if subordinates have a disagreement with their managers, especially in China, Japan and India.
In China and some other Asian countries, power distance is also associated with "the family culture". In this kind of corporate culture the manager is like the "caring father" who knows better than his subordinates what should be done and what is suitable for them. The subordinates always esteem the managers because of their position and experience. There are both positive and negative aspects in the family cultures. It is just an easy managing system. But Sometimes it is hard to get young creative employees work well because of the hierarchy.
2.2 Individualism VS. Collectivism
Individualism pertains(属于) to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: Everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive (关系机密的) groups, which throughout people’s lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty(绝对的忠贞)." (Hofstede, 1994)
Individualists prefer self-sufficiency(自足) while collectivists give more recognition to their interdependent roles and obligations to the group(对集体的依赖和义务). Studies of social categorization(社会分类) and intergroup relations show that people use salient(显著的) characteristics as the basis to “group” others(把其他人分类). The group that the categorizer feels similar to and identifies with is called the “ingroup“(把和自己相像或是相同的人划分为圈内人) and other groups are called "outgroups." People from all types of culture categorize others in this way, but the importance of the distinction is much greater for people from collectivist cultures. Whereas individualistic societies are loosely knit, collectivist societies are composed of tight networks in which people operate as members of ingroups and outgroups, expect to look after other members of their ingroup in nee d and expect their group to look after them.
2.2.1 Individualistic Culture
Individualistic culture believes that people are supposed to take care of themselves and remain emotionally independent of groups, organizations, or other collectives. Self-emphasis is important, even in budding friendships. Individuals can do whatever they want, and their "freedom" and their "rights" are of necessary values. Their high level of self-respect does not keep them from enjoying a good time and an occasional adventure, even if they might feel guilty later. When they are with friends, they are very open, but they can be very critical toward enemies. Individuals like to debate but will withdraw and become defensive with somebody they don't trust. When they are interested, they can be loud with lots of questions but they are likely to look away when they get bored. They judge others by how much they need them.
Individualism is the attitude of valuing ourselves as separate individuals with responsibility for our own destinies and our own actions.
※The ideal of the individual is deeply rooted in the social, political, and economic institutions. The individual is the source of moral power, totally competent to assess the effects of his own actions, and is expected to be responsible for those actions.
※Family ties tend to be relatively unimportant. Family remains the primary group to which most Americans have their strongest loyalties. But when compared with other cultures, Americans divide their time and emotional energy between family and a wider variety of social groups, including church, school, labor union, workplace, and a host of voluntary organizations(自愿组织).
※The physical layout(设计) of the typical American house, designed to maximize individual space, clearly reflects the emphasis placed on individualism and personal privacy.
※The concept of individualism is instilled from an early age in the United States by constant encouragement of children to become self-sufficient. Children are taught to make their own decisions, clarify their own values, form their own opinions, and solve their own problems. Children are encouraged to search out answers for themselves, rather than rely on teachers or adults.
Collectivist Culture
Collectivist culture emphasizes the ingroup, such as the organization or the extended family. Collectivists value harmony and avoid direct confrontation. They emphasize building relationships with others through rituals(礼节) and politeness, and task accomplishment becomes an indirect or secondary goal. Each individual represents the group to which he belongs, so if an individual is hurt, the group is hurt; if an individual is helped, the group is helped; if an individual is shamed, the group is shamed. The communication style is typically indirect.
Collectivism emphasizes common interests, conformity, cooperation, and interdependence. It regards a group of individuals as having a single identity similar to a person.
※People tend to identify or define themselves primarily as members of a group rather than as individuals.
※Property, such as land or livestock(家禽), is controlled by the large group rather than being individually owned.
※Basic life choices, such as who you will marry or what profession you will follow, are not made exclusively, or even primarily, by the individual. For example, marriages in some cultures are arranged by parents and other influential members of the two family groups involved.
※Collectivist societies have a strong sense of responsibility to the group (e.g. country, family, company).
※There is considerably less privacy.
