Abstract Instructional Technology for Students wit

What Every Teacher Ought to Know

No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part

of the main. If a clod be washed away by the sea, Europe is the less, as well as if a

promontory were, as well as if a manor of thy friend's or of thine own were. Any

man's death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind; and therefore

never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.

John Donne, Devotions on Emergent Occasions, 1624.

Abstract

The Education for All Handicapped Children Act, signed into law in 1975, ruled that all children in the United States with a disability have a legal right, up to the age of majority (21 years old), to a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE). Coincidentally, 1975 also was a watershed in the history of personal computers. In that year, Bill Gates and Paul Allen started a company called Microsoft and, a few months later, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak built the first Apple computer. Over the years since 1975, personal computers have advanced by leaps and bounds and become cheap enough to be ubiquitous; they also have brought to students with disabilities a whole new world of learning opportunities. Assistive computer hardware and software tools have been designed to assist almost anyone, regardless of ability or disability, to benefit from a pre-k through 12 education, thus enabling anyone, ideally, to become an integral part of society. Everyone, whether disabled or not, should be aware of the increasingly sophisticated range of available assistive technologies and services in order to ensure that children who have a disability get all the help they need.Copyright © Bernard John Poole, Elizabeth Sky-McIlvain, Lorrie Jackson, Yvonne Singer, 2005, all rights reserved Chapter 15: Instructional Technology for Students with Disabilities: What Every Teacher Ought

to Know

Outline

Introduction

Definitions

A Pre-Test

Literature Review

Computer Corporations to the Rescue

Accessibility and the World Wide Web Consortium

Universal Design

OS-based Accessibility Options

a.StickyKeys, FilterKeys, and ToggleKeys

b.MouseKeys

c.Mouse Pointers

d.The Accessibility Wizard

e.On-Screen Keyboard

Application-based Accessibility Options

a.Word Prediction Software

b.Screen Readers

c.Alternative keyboards

d.Speech Synthesizers

Moving Forward: Some Recommendations

Conclusion

References

Case Study: Seeking a Post-Secondary Education

Introduction

Until relatively recently, people with disabilities, especially those with severe disabilities, were isolated and institutionalized, forced to live out their lives more or less shunned by society. But people who with a disability do not consider themselves disadvantaged by their disability. They do not want to be institutionalized; they welcome any opportunity to enjoy life with their peers. They accept that they are differently abled, but they resent being singled out because of it. “We do not want to be considered exceptional,” they will say. “We need empathy, not sympathy.” So, today, the goal is to include people with disabilities into the mainstream of society. Advocacy groups have prompted the United States government to legislate in favor of people with disabilities. The 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), was “the world's first comprehensive civil rights law for people with disabilities. The Act prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in employment (Title I), in public services (Title II), in public accommodations (Title III), and in telecommunications (Title IV). …The ADA has been described as the Emancipation Proclamation for the disability community” (EEOC, 2002).

But before ADA, the US government had already initiated a series of rolling reforms with the passing, in 1975, of The Education of All Handicapped Children Act, which was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990. This Act lays down the law in favorof disabled students, guaranteeing them the same opportunity of a pre-school through elementary and secondary education as non-disabled students. It also calls for regular review and revision of the state of education for disabled students.

The latest iteration of IDEA, signed into law by President George W. Bush in 2004, awaits review and implementation; but it is now law.

Unfortunately, implementation of IDEA is slow, painfully slow for those children who have a disability, since they so often must depend on others for the quality of their lives. For example, IDEA 1997 was only fully implemented nationwide by early 2005, after IDEA 2004 had been signed into law by the White House.

How long do those who are disabled have to wait? As Tom Nurse put it so poignantly (Nurse, 2005): “The biggest disabilities are not in people, but in systems.” The cost of IDEA and ADA implementation may be a significant factor in slowing down progress; but so are ignorance and a lack of concern. After all, if we were genuinely concerned about people with disabilities, there would have been no need for IDEA or ADA in the first place.

The demand for assistive technologies increases significantly as more disabled children attend public schools. Assistive technology devices and services are needed to help students with various disabilities succeed in the classroom. They also can enable disabled students to socially interact with their non-disabled peers.

Advances in technology are making it more and more feasible to successfully mainstream students who have any kind of disability. Researchers are developing increasingly sophisticated computer-based hardware and software which make it possible for even the most severely handicapped individuals to succeed in school and ultimately become productive members of society. “Today we can say that if a person can control any part of his or her body—the raising of an eyebrow, the movement or blink of an eye, the flick of a finger, the twitch of a toe, the touch of a tongue, or the nod of the head—an assistive technology device can be designed to use that movement to allow a disabled person to function independently in society” (Poole, Skye-McIlvain, & Jackson, 2004).

Life-enhancing technologies such as those examined in the PBS film “Freedom Machines” (PBS, 2004) and those discussed in this paper are opening doors to people with disabilities where once those doors were closed.

Definitions

Before we proceed, let us get some definitions clear.

Disability: The Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) defines disability as a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the individual’s major life activities; or, the person must have a record of …. a[n] impairment; or, the person must be regarded as having such an impairment (Foote, 2000, p. 191; Blanck & Berven, 1999, p. 18).

Disabilities include the following impairments: mental retardation, hearing impairment, deafness, visual impairment, blindness, deaf-blindness, speech or language impairment, serious emotional disturbance, autism, traumatic brain injury, orthopedic impairment, a

specific learning disability, other health impairment, multiple disabilities, or developmental delay (up to age 9).Copyright © Bernard John Poole, Elizabeth Sky-McIlvain, Lorrie Jackson, Yvonne Singer, 2005, all rights reserved Chapter 15: Instructional Technology for Students with Disabilities: What Every Teacher Ought

to Know

Assistive Technology Device: The Assistive Technology Act (2004) defines an Assistive Technology Device as any item, piece of equipment or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.

Assistive Technology Service: The Assistive Technology Act (2004) further defines an Assistive Technology Service as any service that directly assists an individual with a disability in the selection, acquisition, or use of an assistive technology device. Such term includes the

evaluation of the needs of an individual with a disability, including a functional evaluation of the individual in the individual's customary environment.

Empathy has been defined as a person feeling what the other individual feels (Eisenberg, 1991). Sympathy is where a person feels sorry and worried for the other individual who is needy or distressed (Eisenberg, 1998).

A Pre-Test

Herrea (1998) developed an on-line pre-test to assess people’s understanding of the legal rights of students who have a disability. How would you answer each of the following questions? The correct answers are in the footnote.

1.If a person's body is severely impaired, so is the intellect.

2.People with disabilities live completely different lives than nondisabled people.

3.It is appropriate to place students with disabilities in classrooms with nondisabled peers.

4.When speaking to a person in a wheelchair for more than a few minutes, sit in a chair.

5.As a teacher, it is important to know which rest rooms are wheelchair-accessible.

6.An annual review of the education plan for each student with a disability is required by

law.

7.Resting your hands on a person's wheelchair shows that you are accepting of their

disability.

8.When speaking with a person who is deaf, you should speak toward the interpreter so that

your message is understood.

9.People who are blind have exceptional hearing.

10.If a student uses profanity in your classroom and has been diagnosed with Turrets

Syndrome you can remove him or her from the class because of this behavior.

11.Students with illnesses such as AIDS, cancer, or spine bifida cannot receive an education

in the public schools because of the chance they will get sick or injured in class.

12.All people who are blind read Braille.

13.Once you become acquainted with someone, it is OK to pet their guide dog.

14.Appropriate modifications for a student with Learning Disabilities would be repeating

instructions orally and writing them on the board.15.If a student with Serious Emotional Disturbance (SED) is verbally or physically

aggressive to other classmates (shouts profanity or tries to hit them), you should

immediately take them to the principal's office.

16.If a student attends Speech Therapy 30 minutes every other day, he or she is not

responsible to make up the missed classroom work.

17.It could never happen to me.1

So how did you do? Did the questions make you think? Even when you answered a question correctly, were you guessing, or did you know for sure? Do you wonder if you know as much as you should? Do you think you should learn more about how to help disabled folks feel at home in your world?

Literature Review

Assistive technology refers to alternative or adaptive specialized hardware and software, including input devices designed for users with manual disabilities, voice synthesizers, and voice recognition programs (Marbler, Hadadian, & Ulman, 1999). This technology makes it possible for students with learning and physical disabilities to actively participate in inclusive classroom tasks such as writing, reading, mathematics, and the like (Lankutis & Kennedy, 2002). Assistive technology allows these pupils to independently complete assignments and examinations. Marbler, Hadadian, and Ulman (1999) noted that public schools are forced, under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), to make available to all disabled pupils the assistive technology equipment and services they need. In addition, Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act, the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), and the 1998 Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act require schools to provide all disabled children equal and free access to appropriate assistive technology (Lankutis & Kennedy, 2002). As a result, child study teams are obliged to include the topic of assistive technology in students’ Individualized Educational Plans (IEPs) (Lankutis & Kennedy, 2002; Marbler, Hadadian, & Ulman, 1999; Zascavage, & Keefe, 2004). This also means that trained staff members need to work with disabled students and that school campuses need to be physically accessible (Roach, 2002).

Wilkes (2001) reported that some school districts were successfully using assistive technology with disabled students attending all grade levels from kindergarten through twelfth grade. Lankutis and Kennedy (2002) presented a case study describing a student with Cerebral Palsy who benefited from using a word prediction program called Co-Writer, along with a mathematics software application and a portable keyboard. These digital tools helped the student learn math and made it easier for the student to complete assignments and tests. Students with disabilities, using hardware and software designed to help them do what non-disabled children do, now participate in group activities, instead of sitting alone in the back of the classroom.

Wilkes (2001) also reported that students who could not use their hands to access a standardized keyboard and mouse, were given the option of using voice recognition tools to work with the computer (Wilkes, 2001). For example, with IBM’s ViaVoice installed, disabled students are able 1 F F T T T T F F F F F F F T F F FCopyright © Bernard John Poole, Elizabeth Sky-McIlvain, Lorrie Jackson, Yvonne Singer, 2005, all rights reserved Chapter 15: Instructional Technology for Students with Disabilities: What Every Teacher Ought

to Know

to control the computer with voice commands. Students can also operate the computer through touch control devices, alternative keyboards and mice, and speech-to-text word recognition tools. Word prediction programs, word processors, grammar checkers, scanners, compact disc recording (CD-R and CD-RW) drives, MIDI-compatible musical instruments, and spell checkers are other kinds of assistive technologies (Marbler, Hadadian, & Ulman, 1999). If teachers had not made these assistive technology tools available, students with disabilities of various kinds would not have excelled in academic subjects and would have been socially isolated from their non-disabled peers.

Elkind (2004) recommended that k-12 educators, before they purchase and integrate assistive technology products for teaching and learning, should evaluate them based on the criteria of flexibility, usability, and supportability. These items can be obtained for evaluation by downloading demonstration versions from the Internet or by requesting demonstration CDs (Anderson, 2004).

Computer Corporations to the Rescue

There has been an impressive commitment by leading computer organizations such as Apple, IBM, Microsoft, and the World Wide Web Consortium to the development of accessible computing hardware and software.

1984 was the year when Apple introduced the Lisa, its first computer with a graphical user interface (GUI). GUI technology had already been developed in the 1960s by Douglas Englebart and refined in the mid-1970s at Xerox Corporation. While the GUI was not designed for people with disabilities, it made the computer more accessible for them just as it has made the computer more accessible to the general population.

IBM has a long history of developing technology to assist people with disabilities. In 1975, IBM developed the Model 1403 Braille printer. In 1980, IBM developed a talking typewriter for people who were blind, and this was followed by a talking display terminal in 1981. As computers migrated to graphical user interfaces in the 1980's, IBM introduced its first screen reader for the sight impaired in 1984; indeed, “the Screen Reader was once a proprietary product of IBM” (Cooke, 2004). IBM’s Home Page Reader—a talking web browser introduced in 1998 for the visually-impaired and the elderly—magnifies text and reads out loud the contents of a web page. Another IBM product, ViaVoice, enables users to interact with the computer using voice commands (speech recognition), thus freeing them from dependence on the mouse, keyboard and stylus for many applications. More information on IBM’s commitment to accessibility can be found at http://www-306.ibm.com/able/.

Both developments—screen readers and the GUI—transformed computing for everyone. Even those without vision impairments flocked to the cute computers which were able to speak the text that appeared on the screen and which were easier to use than anything that had gone before. As in so many cases, technologies developed for specific audiences of users were discovered to be welcomed by the general population.

Microsoft Corporation has had a commitment to accessibility since at least 1988 (to read more about this commitment, go to http://www.microsoft.com/enable/microsoft/history.aspx). Various versions of Microsoft’s Windows OS, in particular Windows XP, have included a range of accessibility options, which we will discuss further in this paper. These options are designed specifically to assist users with vision, hearing, and mobility impairments (Microsoft, 2004). Accessibility and the World Wide Web Consortium

The World Wide Web is well on the way to becoming an essential information resource with significant relevance to learning. As such, it is essential that it be accessible to students who have a disability. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), established shortly after Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1991, has defined accessibility guidelines for the World Wide Web. The latest version, published in June of 2005, “covers a wide range of issues and recommendations for making Web content more accessible.” (W3C, 2005).

The W3C guidelines define Four Principles of Accessibility which should guide designers and developers of Web content. Principle 1 states that content must be perceivable to all users, no matter what the user impairment (so visual and/or audible content must have text alternatives, for example, and the user should be able to define a customizable color scheme). Principle 2 states that interface elements in the content must be operable (thus there should be a keyboard alternative for all interaction with the Web, for example, and the user should always be able to control any time limits on reading or interaction as well as avoid content that could cause seizures due to photosensitivity). Principle 3 states that content and controls must be understandable (with recommendations, for example, that the writing should be “clear and simple” with audio-visual content to assist comprehension). Finally, Principle 4 states that content must be robust enough to work with current and future technologies (which puts responsibility on the Web content provider to remain aware of assistive technologies designed to facilitate access to the Web for users who have a disability).

The full description of these W3C Accessibility Guidelines, available on the Web at

http://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG20/checklist.html, is detailed and comprehensive. For each principle there are guidelines that define how the principle applies in a specific area. Under each guideline are success criteria, definitions, benefits, and examples. Success criteria are testable statements to further define the guideline and to determine conformance. Of course, these guidelines cannot be generally enforced; but nor should they be ignored. They ought to be included in the training of all those who are employed as Web content designers and developers. The United States federal government has worked with W3C to develop a set of standards for making federal Web sites accessible to the disabled. Federal agencies could face lawsuits from disabled users who can't access federal Web sites, so there is a huge effort in progress to retrofit existing sites and insure that new sites meet the standards. (Thomason, 2001). More on this topic can be found at http://www.access-board.gov/sec508/guide/1194.22.htm.

Universal Design

The W3C Guidelines make the important point that technology that is designed to make computers accessible for people who are disabled is often also easier for the rest of us to use. “Following these guidelines,” the document states, “will also make your Web content moreCopyright © Bernard John Poole, Elizabeth Sky-McIlvain, Lorrie Jackson, Yvonne Singer, 2005, all rights reserved Chapter 15: Instructional Technology for Students with Disabilities: What Every Teacher Ought

to Know

accessible to the vast majority of users, including older users [and young student users]. It will also enable people to access Web content using many different devices—including a wide variety of assistive technology.

Universal Designers look at our world through the eyes of people with disabilities. They study how to enable access to anywhere a disabled person wants to go, along with access to anything a disabled person wants to do. Door handles should be levers rather than knobs, for example; the space beneath sinks in kitchens and bathrooms should be open to allow for wheelchair access; ramps and elevators should be alternatives to steps; curbs should have curb cuts; and so forth. The outcome of the application of Universal Design is a world that is easier for everyone to live in, not only for those of us who are disabled. A door with a lever for a handle can be opened with an elbow when hands are full; mothers with strollers—and people on roller blades—can use curb cuts to make a smooth transition from sidewalk to street; a ramp is a good deal easier to negotiate than steps when one is moving a heavy object into a building, and so on. Readers who would like to learn more about Universal Design may visit the Center for Universal Design at the North Carolina State University College of Design.

In this paper our focus is on Universal Design as it pertains to assistive technologies that facilitate access to learning for students with a disability. Research conducted over the past 25 years has shown that learning is made more effective and efficient for students in general when they are able to access and make appropriate use of digital tools (Poole et al., 2004). We therefore must do everything within our power to ensure equal access to these technologies that help those children who have any kind of disability learn.

What, then, are some of the more readily available, tried-and-true accessibility tools available today? We will look first at accessibility options that are designed into the operating systems most commonly used with desktop computers. These are the “meat and potatoes” of computer-based accessibility options because they come bundled with every computer we buy. Then there are accessibility options that are designed as special needs hardware devices and software applications. We will profile a few of these, too, bearing in mind that they are but the tip of the iceberg compared to what will be available in the future to assist those with special needs.2

OS-based Accessibility Options

Of the various versions of Microsoft’s Windows operating system, Windows XP has the most comprehensive set of OS-based accessibility options to-date. But earlier versions of Windows were already designed to accommodate the needs of users with vision, hearing, and mobility impairments.

a. StickyKeys, FilterKeys, and ToggleKeys

2 The modern digital computer, invented in 1939 by John Vincent Atanasoff, is a programmable machine and the sky’s the limit as to what it can be programmed to do. It was originally conceived as a Universal Machine or Turing Machine, after the man, Alan Turing, who, in 1936, wrote a defining paper which proved that the modern digital computer had enormous problem-solving potential (Hodges, 1992).When a physically-disabled student has limited ability to use the regular computer keyboard and is able to press only one key at a time, teachers should show them how to use the StickyKeys option available. This option is selected from the Accessibility Options icon in the Control Panel. As illustrated in the dialog box below left, the Keyboard tab makes available the option to Use StickyKeys. The StickyKeys accessibility option is essential for those students who are unable to touch or hold down more than one key on the keyboard at a time. For example, StickyKeys enables a student to type a capital letter by first pressing the Shift key and subsequently (rather than simultaneously) an alphabetical key. The same works for any double or triple key sequence, such as Control or Alt key sequences.

The Keyboard tab also enables the user to check other

accessibility settings such as Use Filter Keys (which ignores

automatic repetition of characters when the user is unable to

release a key quickly enough) and Use Toggle Keys (which

enables an audible sound for the sight impaired when the user

accidentally presses the Caps Lock, Num Lock, or Scroll Lock

keys).

It is worthwhile to show all students, no matter what the age

group, how these various accessibility options work so that

everyone can become aware of the needs of those who are in

some ways less able than themselves. Moreover, if everyone in

the class knows how to use these accessibility options, there is

more likelihood that the students will share this knowledge with their friends and relatives at home. On occasion, we may all find these accessibility options useful.

b. MouseKeys

This option also may be selected from the Accessibility

Options icon in the Control Panel. As illustrated in the

dialog box at left, the user selects the Mouse tab to use

the MouseKeys accessibility option.

Clicking on the Settings button brings up the dialog box

at right, which

allows the user to

also set the speed at

which the pointer

moves across the screen. This can be a critical issue for those

with hand-eye coordination limitations. A High speed is not a

desirable option for those with a visual or cognitive disability

that makes it hard for them to follow a moving object on the

screen. The ability to tweak the pointer speed makes all the

difference for such students, just as it makes a difference for

anyone who uses a computer.

Most of us think of ourselves as average, but the fact is that

we are all unique. If we know about these features of operating systems, we can each adjust settings to suit our personal preferences.Copyright © Bernard John Poole, Elizabeth Sky-McIlvain, Lorrie Jackson, Yvonne Singer, 2005, all rights reserved Chapter 15: Instructional Technology for Students with Disabilities: What Every Teacher Ought

to Know

Using the MouseKeys accessibility option, students also are able to control the mouse pointer by using the Mouse Keys located on the numeric key pad (standardized keyboard) or embedded numeric key pad (laptop keyboard). The illustration at left shows which of the keys on the

standardized keyboard’s numeric keypad control the directional movement

of the mouse pointer on the screen, along with keys to control single and

double clicking and left or right mouse button selection.

Quadriplegic users, or other users unable to use a mouse, can hold an

implement such as a stick in their mouth or between their toes, or a pointer

attached to a “hat” on their head, in order to depress a key on the numeric

keypad which moves the cursor wherever desired on the screen. Yvonne

Singer, co-author of this paper, has cerebral palsy. She wears a “hat” on her

head with a pointer attached in order to interact with her computer at home

(see Case Study, page 15).

c. MousePointers

Students who are sight impaired can be assisted by

increasing the size and style of the mouse pointer. This

option also is selected from the Accessibility Options icon in

the Control Panel. As illustrated in the dialog box at right,

the user selects the Pointers tab to increase the size of the

mouse pointer. One also can select a specific style of mouse

pointer from the Customize menu, along with a pointer

shadow if this helps a visually-impaired student better locate

and follow the pointer on the screen.

This option of magnifying the size of the mouse pointer is

useful for more than just those who have significant sight

impairment. Many of us sometimes have difficulty locating

the mouse pointer on a computer screen, either because the

pointer gets lost against a particular background, or because it does not stand out because it is too small. Increasing the size of the mouse pointer solves these problems right away.

d.The Accessibility Wizard

Microsoft’s Windows XP has a built in Accessibility Wizard to help you set up your computer if you have special vision, hearing, or mobility needs. The Accessibility Wizard is accessed from the Start menu (Start > All Programs > Accessories > Accessibility). Along with the Accessibility Wizard are other accessibility tools such as a Magnifier, a Narrator (a very simple screen reader), and an On-screen Keyboard. In the previous sections we have already described the StickyKeys, FilterKeys, ToggleKeys, MouseKeys, CursorSpeed, and MousePointers accessibility options, including the Magnifier tool.

For users with impaired vision, the Accessibility Wizard also helps set up TextSize options, such as large titles and menus, increased font size, and lower screen resolution. Students with visionimpairments, including color blindness, can also use the Accessibility Wizard to adjust the size of the scroll bars and window border, along with the size of icons, the color scheme, and the cursor’s width.

Students with hearing impairments can use the Accessibility Wizard to include the option to have visual warnings for when the computer provides an audible alert, along with captions for speech and other sounds.

The Accessibility Wizard also helps with the selection of computer interaction options for those who have an impairment that affects their mobility. Some of these have already been described above. Others include the option to access Extra Keyboard Help when certain programs offer tips that help the user use the keyboard. There also is a Mouse Button Settings option, which enables a user to configure the mouse for either right-handed or left-handed use. Most left-handers know that they can move the mouse over to the left side of the keyboard for their convenience; not too many know that they also have the option to reverse the functionality of the right and left mouse buttons.

The 80-20 rule may well apply when it comes to computer skills: 80% of users are familiar with only 20% of what the computer can do for them! It is especially unfortunate when students with a disability are denied the opportunity to become power users of modern assistive technologies.

e. On-Screen Keyboard

Users who are able to use the mouse can use the Windows On-screen Keyboard to input data and to interact with the active window on the screen. This provides a minimum level of functionality for mobility-impaired users, though they would need a utility program such as ? with higher functionality for daily use.

Application-based Accessibility Options

a. Word Prediction Software

Word prediction programs such as SoothSayer or Co-Writer are designed to facilitate writing by suggesting words in response to one or two letters typed by the user.Copyright © Bernard John Poole, Elizabeth Sky-McIlvain, Lorrie Jackson, Yvonne Singer, 2005, all rights reserved Chapter 15: Instructional Technology for Students with Disabilities: What Every Teacher Ought

to Know

For example, if a student types the letter “d”, the program will generate a list of words that begin with “d” (dog, dress, etc.) from which the student can select the target word. Typing a second letter (e.g., “du”) generates another, shorter, list of words beginning with “du” (Marbler, Hadadian, & Ulman). These each successive letter of a desired word that the user types—perhaps painstakingly with a head pointer—narrows down the selection of possible words until the correct word is recognized in the displayed list. Most of the time it is necessary to enter no more than two or three letters before the desired word is displayed, thus saving the user with a mobility impairment such as quadriplegia a great deal of time.

b. Screen Readers

People who are sight impaired and who need a more sophisticated program than the OS Narrator built-in, can use a screen reader such as JAWS to “read” what is on the computer screen. JAWS is controlled by keyboard commands. Using an internal software speech synthesizer and the computer’s sound card, information from the screen is read aloud. The output is produced as a Braille display (the raised tactile language codes for the sight-impaired) or as natural language speech using a voice synthesizer. More information about JAWS may be found at the following URL: http://www.scc.losrios.edu/~access/AssistTech.html.

c. Alternative Keyboards

IntelliKeys is an example of an alternative keyboard

designed to assist computer interaction for students who

lack physical coordination and fine motor skills.

Alternative keyboards such as this are a life-saver for

students who are unable to use the small keys on a standard

keyboard. The IntelliKeys keyboard plugs directly into the

standard keyboard port of your computer. Seven

standard overlays come with IntelliKeys. These

standard overlays, once slid into place, have

barcodes on the back that the IntelliKeys “reads.”

More information on IntelliKeys may be found at

http://assistivetech.sf.k12.sd.us/intellikeys.htm

d. Speech Synthesizers

Speech synthesis is a term used to describe the capability of a computer to synthesize human speech. JAWS and Home Page Reader use a speech synthesizer in their Screen Readers for the blind. Speech synthesis is a powerful communication

medium for anyone with a severe speech impairment.

DynaVox is a communication device which enables

students with such an impairment to have the computer

speak for them after selecting a category from the

screen by touching a customized icon. DynaVox can

both type and talk for the speech-impaired students.

Students can type to create a prepared speech and

have DynaVox speak it for them. For more about DynaVox, the reader may go to the following Website: http://www.dynavoxtech.com/.

Moving Forward: Some Recommendations

Zascavage and Keefe (2004) suggest that school districts should hire qualified teachers who are knowledgeable about assistive technology and have experience working with disabled students. Also, school faculty, physical/occupational/speech therapists, psychologists, and computer technologists need to work together with students who have a disability and their families. Schools should incorporate a collaborative and co-operative approach into their curriculums (Besio & Salminen, 2004). This teaching methodology enables pupils with a disability to work more closely with their non-disabled peers while utilizing assistive technology products in the classroom environment. Teachers naturally need to modify their lesson plans to accommodate every pupils’ learning abilities.

Campbell (2004) stated that all schools should follow a universal design model. This model would grant equal access to all disabled students to utilize assistive technology. According to the Americans with Disabilities Act, disabled pupils are entitled to use cost-effective and efficient assistive technology tools. The universal design model would also ensure that all classrooms and computer laboratories would be wheelchair accessible.

Campbell (2004) also points out that, as part of the Mainstreaming Act, all school districts must include accessible technology items in their yearly budgets. Local, state, and federal governments must budget more monies for this than is at present the case. According to the literature, many disabled children do not receive public education and do not have opportunities to use assistive technology due to budget cuts in government programs.

Disability organizations, such as United Cerebral Palsy and Vocational Rehabilitation, must work along with the Child Study Teams to evaluate disabled students’ academic and assistive technology needs. After determining the students’ needs, their Individual Educational Plans (IEPs) should specifically state what accessible technology products are needed to promote academic independence and success. In addition, IEPs must include step-by-step instructions regarding how to set up accessible technology items and appoint teachers to be responsible for these products.

During pre-semester in-service days, a representative from a disability organization should be invited by school districts to give a hands-on demonstration to teachers concerning how to handle assistive technology items. The teachers should then be required to pass on this knowledge to all the students in their classes, not only those students who are disabled. Conclusion

Assistive technologies include a wide variety of software applications, input devices, and hardware that enable students with a disability to perform difficult tasks by themselves. Computer-based assistive technologies are crucial components of the commitment at all levels of government in the United States to guarantee every school age child, especially those who have a disability, an equal opportunity to enjoy all the benefits that citizenship can bring. Individual teachers can do what they can, but ultimately it is the community—from the federal governmentCopyright © Bernard John Poole, Elizabeth Sky-McIlvain, Lorrie Jackson, Yvonne Singer, 2005, all rights reserved Chapter 15: Instructional Technology for Students with Disabilities: What Every Teacher Ought

to Know

on down to the personnel who manage the local school districts—that must make the commitment to guarantee that ALL students, no matter what the individual need, must be accommodated in furtherance of their willingness to learn.

References

Anderson, G. H. (2004, October). Freeware, shareware, and demos on the Internet. ConnSENSE Bulletin. 52-58.

Besio, S., & Salminen, A. (2004). Children and youngsters and technology. Technology and Disability, 16. 115-117.

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Zascavage, V. T., & Keefe, C. H. (2004). Students with severe speech and physical disabilities: Opportunity barriers to literacy. Focus On Autism And Other Developmental Disabilities, 19(4). 223-234.Copyright © Bernard John Poole, Elizabeth Sky-McIlvain, Lorrie Jackson, Yvonne Singer, 2005, all rights reserved Chapter 15: Instructional Technology for Students with Disabilities: What Every Teacher Ought

to Know

Case Study: Seeking a Post-Secondary Education

by

Yvonne Singer, MA

Introduction

When people with a disability are told

that they are too disabled to attend

college, they should seek affirmative

action. This might involve writing a

formal letter to the president of a

college explaining that disabled people

have the ability to learn. It also may be

necessary to arrange for others to

advocate for their educational rights.

Unfortunately, without affirmative

action it is still the sad reality that

many disabled people will not be able

to attend college. This also will mean that many disabled people will not be able to

obtain careers that are consonant with their abilities.

A Case in Point

I was born a quadriplegic, with a severe case of Cerebral Palsy. People constantly told

me that I would never attend a university and achieve my goal of becoming a

psychologist for the physically challenged. Growing up, I had to endure silly remarks

such as, "Yvonne, how can you hope to go to college when you do not know basic

algebra? You cannot even count change. And besides, you do not have normal

intelligence to compete with normal students."

Such put downs have not stopped me from achieving my long and short-term goals.

They only made me work harder to overcome the obstacles in my path. My family

taught me to always strive to become a better individual and that I can never fail as

long I keep trying. These words of advice have helped me to develop a positive

attitude that anything can be achieved.

People tend to judge me by my physical disability. They see my wheelchair, my arms

and legs flailing in all crazy directions, and my speech impediment, and they more

often than not assume that I am mentally retarded. Proving that I have a good mind

has always been a frustrating challenge because most people never take the time to

look beyond the surface to discover how intelligent I am.

For instance, school psychologists and learning specialists had difficulties

determining how smart I was. In other words, these professionals administered abatch of standardized tests that required me to point with a finger and verbally express my thoughts. I scored very poorly on these tests because I did not have any voluntary control to point with my finger and the professionals had trouble understanding my speech.

This happened frequently throughout my school years. I was outraged to be labeled as having very low intelligence, but I was nonetheless able to demonstrate that I had above average intelligence by performing quite well in my honors classes.

During my high school years, I was not allowed to use a computer to complete homework assignments and examinations. No reason was given for this; it was just the way things still were back then (mid to late 1980s). As a result, I had to verbally dictate test answers and essays to my full-time aide. This was the beginning of a hard struggle that lasted close to five years. My aide could not understand my speech; nor did she know any of the subject matter. As a result, I did very poorly in my classes. Naturally, I was extremely frustrated because I knew and understood my subjects well, but I could not successfully communicate what I wanted to say. I was constantly reminded that I had low intelligence and that I should enroll in a United Cerebral Palsy school. After visiting a UCP school and witnessing other physically disabled students not engaged in learning anything, I spent a whole week in bed crying. I became extremely depressed.

Suddenly, I just decided to stand up for my educational rights because I simply refused to spend the rest of my life gazing at the ceiling. Moreover, I found the courage to see my counselor about seeking alternatives for testing my knowledge. My counselor realized that I had a mind; furthermore, he arranged to have a tutor assist me with tests and homework assignments. Verbally dictating answers to a professional tutor was one hundred percent better than doing so with my uneducated aide.

However, I was still angry and depressed because I had to start taking resource classes due to my poor grades. Taking these classes insulted my intelligence. There were numerous times when I wanted to commit suicide; nevertheless, I never gave up pursuing my ambitions.

I learned that most physically handicapped children are reduced to wasting away and eventually wind up in adult training centers designed for the mentally retarded. This awareness caused me to fight with all of my might to become a well educated individual.

After graduating high school, I was obliged to enroll in two state institutions designed to assist the physically handicapped to become productive members of society. Since I always had a burning desire to attend college, I was completely dumbfounded to hear my that high school teachers, Child Study Team (a group of educational experts who help disabled students adjust to public school), counselors, and parents had casually decided that college was inappropriate for me. My world shattered into pieces when I realized that all of my hard work through high school was for nothing and that even my own parents had lost faith in me.Copyright © Bernard John Poole, Elizabeth Sky-McIlvain, Lorrie Jackson, Yvonne Singer, 2005, all rights reserved Chapter 15: Instructional Technology for Students with Disabilities: What Every Teacher Ought

to Know

Since nobody thought that I could attend college, I spent the next eight months being

physically, psychologically, and verbally abused by the instructors in the two state

institutions for the disabled. Convincing the staff members that I wanted to lead an

independent life and attend college only made matters worst.

The abusive treatment I received was so unbearable that I stopped eating and I was

tempted (again) to commit suicide. I wrote long poems and joined a church group as a

temporary means of escape. I rebelled because I certainly did not want to be isolated

from society and I did not want to give up my dream of becoming a psychologist for

people who are physically disabled.

Finally, I was able to convince my parents to bring me back home. My family was

incredulous to discover that I was on the verge of death. I spent the next month

recovering at home in bed. My bed became a safety net because I felt that nobody

could harm me there.

Then, my mother read an article about a computer program for the physically disabled

that was being offered at Brookdale Community College, in New Jersey. Since I now

thought that I was a first class moron, I was very hesitant about starting life all over

again. Once I enrolled in the computer program, however, I felt like a different person

because I was able to successfully demonstrate my knowledge without being put

down. After being in the program for one day, the director encouraged me to take the

Basic Skills Test which would allow me to enroll in college level classes!

My will power was restored when I passed the test with flying colors and started to

compete with non-disabled college students. Suddenly, I had brand new energy to

overcome my daily obstacles. There were times when various professors were so

frightened that they did not want to teach me. I sought affirmative action by speaking

and writing letters to the dean. It felt terrific to stand up for my rights and thus

overcome these seemingly insurmountable problems.

To conclude, if I had not sought affirmative action, I certainly would not have

completed my Associate degree in Liberal Arts at Brookdale Community College

(1994), gone on to get my Bachelor’s in Psychology at Monmouth University (1999),

and finally attained my Master’s in Psychology from Walden University in 2002.

Unfortunately, I still have not achieved my goal of becoming a psychologist for the

disabled, but I continue to hope that that dream will one day become a reality.

Case Study Recommendations

¾This student could not demonstrate her cognitive abilities on the standardized tests because she did not have any way to communicate. The Child Study Team should have concluded that the student needed assistive technology in order to perform better on the standardized tests and on her academic subjects.

Instructional Technology for Students with Disabilities:

Assistive Technologies of Which We All Should Be Aware

¾The Child Study Team should have documented the importance of utilizing assistive technology in the student’s IEP.

¾If the student had been able to use assistive technology (typing independently on a computer), she would have had little difficulty with high school college prep classes and she would have attended the university of her choice.

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