
CHAPTER 16
SUNDRY OBSERVATIONS ON THE NATURE OF CAPITAL
第十六章:关于资本性质的几点考察
I
AN act of individual saving means--so to speak—- a decision not to have dinner to-day. But it does not necessitate a decision to have dinner or to buy a pair of boots a week hence or a year hence or to consume any specified thing at any specified date. Thus it depresses the business of preparing to-day's dinner without stimulating the business of making ready for some future act of consumption. It is not a substitution of future consumption-demand for present consumption-demand;--it is a net diminution of such demand. Moreover, the expectation of future consumption is so largely based on current experience of present consumption that a reduction in the latter is likely to depress the former, with the result that the act of saving will not merely depress the price of consumption-goods and leave the marginal efficiency of existing capital unaffected, but may actually tend to depress the latter also. In this event it may reduce present investment-demand as well as present consumption-demand.
个人的储蓄行为——可以说是——今天不用餐的决策。但这并非需要决策在一周或者一年之后用餐或买双皮鞋,或者在任何特定的日期消费特定的东西。因此,它抑制了供应今天用餐的商业活动,同时又没有刺激准备未来消费行为的商业活动。它不是用将来的消费需求代替现在的消费需求——它是这种需求的一种净减少。此外,人们对未来消费的期望如此依赖当期消费的经验,以致当期消费的减少可能抑制未来的消费。结果,储蓄行为不只会压低消费品的价格,从而使当期的资本边际效率不变;而且还会在压低消费品价格的同时,降低资本边际效率。这样,储蓄行为除了会减少当期消费需求之外,还会减少当期的投资需求。
If saving consisted not merely in abstaining from present consumption but in placing simultaneously a specific order for future consumption, the effect might indeed be different. For in that case the expectation of some future yield from investment would be improved, and the resources released from preparing for present consumption could be turned over to preparing for the future consumption. Not that they necessarily would be, even in this case, on a scale equal to the amount of resources released; since the desired interval of delay might require a method of production so inconveniently "roundabout" as to have an efficiency well below the current rate of interest, with the result that the favourable effect on employment of the forward order for consumption would eventuate not at once but at some subsequent date, so that the immediate effect of the saving would still be adverse to employment. In any case, however, an individual decision to save does not, in actual fact, involve the placing of any specific forward order for consumption, but merely the cancellation of a present order. Thus, since the expectation of consumption is the only raison d'être of employment, there should be nothing paradoxical in the conclusion that a diminished propensity to consume has cet. par. A depressing effect on employment.
如果储蓄不仅意味着放弃当期消费,而且同时还意味着对未来消费订单的搁置,它对未来的影响的确是很不相同的,因为在这种情形下,对投资所得到的未来收益的预期会有所增进,并且从准备供给当期消费所用的资源中释放出来的部分可以转移到准备供给未来消费之用。不过,即使在这种情形,准备供给未来消费之用的部分,在规模上并不必然等于释放出来的资源数量,因为,人们愿意推迟消费的间隔时期可能要求生产方式“迂回”到如此不方便的程度,以致为未来消费而生产的资本的边际效率会低于当期利息率。结果,为未来消费而预下的订单对就业可能产生的有利影响不能立即实现,而要等到今后的某个日期才能显现,因而储蓄的即刻影响对就业仍然是不利的。然而,在任何情形,个人储蓄的决策在现实中并不包含对未来消费预下订单,而只是代表对当期订单的取消。由此可见,由于对消费的期望是就业存在的唯一理由,因而不难理解,在其他条件不变的情形下,消费倾向的降低会产生压低就业的影响。
The trouble arises, therefore, because the act of saving implies, not a substitution for present consumption of some specific additional consumption which requires for its preparation just as much immediate economic activity as would have been required by present consumption equal in value to the sum saved, but a desire for "wealth" as such, that is for a potentiality of consuming an unspecified article at an unspecified time. The absurd, though almost universal, idea that an act of individual saving is just as good for effective demand as an act of individual consumption, has been fostered by the fallacy, much more specious than the conclusion derived from it, that an increased desire to hold wealth, being much the same thing as an increased desire to hold investments, must, by increasing the demand for investments, provide a stimulus to their production; so that current investment is promoted by individual saving to the same extent as present consumption is diminished.
所以,麻烦就产生了。因为储蓄行为不包含某种特定的额外消费以代替当期消费,而这种特定的额外消费所要求的当期经济活动量又能等同于由于储蓄而减少的当期消费所要求的经济活动量。但是,储蓄只是代表得到“财富”的一种欲望,只是为了得到在任何时间消费任何物品的一种潜能。有一种几乎普遍存在的错误看法认为,对有效需求而言,个人的储蓄行为和消费行为一样好。这种错误看法来自一种看似合理的谬论,即:持有财富的欲望的增加和持有投资品的欲望的增加是同一回事。对投资品需求的增加必然会刺激它们的生产,从而,个人储蓄对当期投资的推动与当期消费的减少对当期投资的推动是同等程度的。
It is of this fallacy that it is most difficult to disabuse men's minds. It comes from believing that the owner of wealth desires a capital-asset as such, whereas what he really desires is its prospective yield. Now, prospective yield wholly depends on the expectation of future effective demand in relation to future conditions of supply. If, therefore, an act of saving does nothing to improve prospective yield, it does nothing to stimulate investment. Moreover, in order than an individual saver may attain his desired goal of the ownership of wealth, it is not necessary that a new capital-asset should be produced wherewith to satisfy him. The mere act of saving by one individual, being two-sided as we have shown above, forces some other individual to transfer to him some article of wealth old or new. Every act of saving involves a "forced" inevitable transfer of wealth to him who saves, though he in his turn may suffer from the saving of others. These transfers of wealth do not require the creation of new wealth--indeed, as we have seen, they may be actively inimical to it. The creation of new wealth wholly depends on the prospective yield of the new wealth reaching the standard set by the current rate of interest. The prospective yield of the marginal new investment is not increased by the fact that someone wishes to increase his wealth, since the prospective yield of the marginal new investment depends on the expectation of a demand for a specific article at a specific date.
从人们心中去掉这种谬论是困难的。这种谬论源于人们相信,财富所有者固然希望拥有资本资产本身,但他真正想拥有的则是资本资产的未来收益。未来收益完全取决于对未来有效需求和未来供给情况之间关系的预期。所以,如果储蓄行为无益于促进未来收益,它也就无益于刺激投资。而且,单个储蓄者要想达到成为财富所有者的目标,不必非要有新的资本资产品生产出来以满足他的愿望。正如我们前面已经指出的那样,个人的单纯储蓄行为具有两面性:一个人储蓄会迫使另一些个体转移某些旧的或新的财富品给他,因而,每一次储蓄行为都包含着“强迫的”不可避免的将财富转移给储蓄者,而该储蓄者反过来也会将财富转移给别的储蓄者。这些财富的转移不需要有新财富的创造——诚然,正如我们已经看到的那样,这种转移甚至反而不利于新财富的创造。新财富的创造完全取决于新财富的未来收益能否达到当期利息率所决定的水平。边际新增投资的未来收益不会由于某人意图增加其财富而增加,因为边际新增投资的未来收益又取决于在某一特定日期对某一特定物品的需求的预期。
Nor do we avoid this conclusion by arguing that what the owner of wealth desires is not a given prospective yield but the best available prospective yield, so that an increased desire to own wealth reduces the prospective yield with which the producers of new investment have to be content. For this overlooks the fact that there is always an alternative to the ownership of real capital-assets, namely the ownership of money and debts; so that the prospective yield with which the producers of new investment have to be content cannot fall below the standard set by the current rate of interest. And the current rate of interest depends, as we have seen, not on the strength of the desire to hold wealth, but on the strengths of the desires to hold it in liquid and in illiquid forms respectively, coupled with the amount of the supply of wealth in the one form relatively to the supply of it in the other. If the reader still finds himself perplexed, let him ask himself why, the quantity of money being unchanged, a fresh act of saving should diminish the sum which it is desired to keep in liquid form at the existing rate of interest.
上述结论是不能用这样一种论证予以否定的,即:财富所有者所期望的不是固定量的预期收益,而是可能有的最好的预期收益,因此,拥有财富的意愿的增加会使得新投资品的生产者所满意的预期收益减少。这种论证忽略了一个事实,即:除了拥有实际的资本资产之外,总还存在持有财富的另外一些办法,即:拥有货币或债券,从而使新增投资品的生产者所满意的预期收益不能低于当期利息率所决定的水平,而当期利息率,像我们已经看到的那样,并不取决于持有财富的意愿的强度,而是取决于财富是分别采取流动性形式还是非流动性形式持有的意愿强度,以及这两种财富形式之间的相对供给量。如果读者至此仍感到困惑不解,那么,读者可以问自己:当货币数量不变时,为什么新的储蓄行为,在当期利息率下,会降低以流动性形式持有财富的意愿?
Certain deeper perplexities, which may arise when we try to probe still further into the whys and wherefores, will be considered in the next chapter.
当我们试图进一步探讨为什么和什么原因时,会引出更深层的疑问,这将在下一章予以考察。
II
It is much preferable to speak of capital as having a yield over the course of its life in excess of its original cost, than as being productive. For the only reason why an asset offers a prospect of yielding during its life services having an aggregate value greater than its initial supply price is because it is scarce; and it is kept scarce because of the competition of the rate of interest on money. If capital becomes less scarce, the excess yield will diminish, without its having become less productive--at least in the physical sense.
与其说资本是生产性的,还不如说资本在其使用寿命中会有一笔超过其原有成本的收益。为什么一项资产在其使用寿命中能提供一种服务,从而使其总价值大于它的原有供给价格的唯一理由在于:它之所以能维持稀缺性,是因为要获取购买资本品的货币要支付利息。如果资本的稀缺性变得较少,超额收益就会减少,而它的生产性并没有减少——至少在实物意义上是如此。
I sympathise, therefore, with the pre-classical doctrine that everything is produced by labour, aided by what used to be called art and is now called technique, by natural resources which are free or cost a rent according to their scarcity or abundance, and by the results of past labour, embodied in assets, which also command a price according to their scarcity or abundance. It is preferable to regard labour, including, of course, the personal services of the entrepreneur and his assistants, as the sole factor of production, operating in a given environment of technique, natural resources, capital equipment and effective demand. This partly explains why we have been able to take the unit of labour as the sole physical unit which we require in our economic system, apart from units of money and of time.
因此,我欣赏古典学派以前的理论,即:每一件物品都是由劳动生产出来的,再辅之以:(1)过去被称为工艺,现在叫做技术的事物;(2)自由取用的或者按照它们的稀缺或丰裕程度而支付代价或者租金的自然资源;以及(3)体现在资产中的并且根据其稀缺或丰裕程度而支付代价的过去劳动的成果。所以,最好是把企业家及其助手们的个人服务包括在劳动中,作为一种的生产要素,在既定的技术环境、自然资源、资本设备以及有效需求的条件下发挥作用。这可以部分地解释,为什么在货币单位和时间单位之外,我们把劳动单位作为我们经济体系中所要求的唯一实物单位。
It is true that some lengthy or roundabout processes are physically efficient. But so are some short processes. Lengthy processes are not physically efficient because they are long. Some, probably most, lengthy processes would be physically very inefficient, for there are such things as spoiling or wasting with time. With a given labour force there is a definite limit to the quantity of labour embodied in roundabout processes which can be used to advantage. Apart from other considerations, there must be a due proportion between the amount of labour employed in making machines and the amount which will be employed in using them. The ultimate quantity of value will not increase indefinitely, relatively to the quantity of labour employed, as the processes adopted become more and more roundabout, even if their physical efficiency is still increasing. Only if the desire to postpone consumption were strong enough to produce a situation in which full employment required a volume of investment so great as to involve a negative marginal efficiency of capital, would a process become advantageous merely because it was lengthy; in which event we should employ physically inefficient processes, provided they were sufficiently lengthy for the gain from postponement to outweigh their inefficiency. We should in fact have a situation in which short processes would have to be kept sufficiently scarce for their physical efficiency to outweigh the disadvantage of the early delivery of their product. A correct theory, therefore, must be reversible so as to be able to cover the cases of the marginal efficiency of capital corresponding either to a positive or to a negative rate of interest; and it is, I think, only the scarcity theory outlined above which is capable of this.
在某些周期较长或迂回的生产过程中,的确会显示出物质上的效率。但是,某些周期较短的生产过程也如此。有些生产过程并不是因为生产周期长而具有物质上的效率,有些(或许是多数)生产周期长的生产过程甚至缺乏物质上的效率,因为时间长而造成损坏或者浪费。在劳动力的数量给定时,体现在能够被用于有益于迂回生产过程的劳动数量是有限的。除去其他的考虑之外,在被雇佣于生产机器的劳动数量和被雇佣于使用这些机器的劳动数量之间,必须保持一个应有的比例。当生产过程越来越多地采取迂回的形式,甚至如果它们的物质效率仍然在增长,相对于所使用的劳动量而言,产品的最后价值量也不会无限增加。只有推迟消费的愿望强烈到足以产生这样的情形,在此情形下,充分就业所要求的投资量大到使资本的边际效率具有负值时,一个生产过程才会仅仅由于时间长而有利可图。在这种情形,在物质上缺乏效率的生产过程只要具有足够的时间长度,以致能使推迟消费所带来的利益大于生产过程的效率低下,我们才应该采用这种生产过程。实际上,我们会处于这样一种状态,在其中,短期的生产过程必须保持足够的稀缺性,以使它们的物质效率超过由于提早生产而可能遭受到的损失,所以,正确的理论必须能够在正反两个方面使用,即把对应于利息率是正值或是负值的资本边际效率的不同情形都能概括进去。我想,只有上文概述的稀缺性理论才能做到这一点。
Moreover there are all sorts of reasons why various kinds of services and facilities are scarce and therefore expensive relatively to the quantity of labour involved. For example, smelly processes command a higher reward, because people will not undertake them otherwise. So do risky processes. But we do not devise a productivity theory of smelly or risky processes as such. In short, not all labour is accomplished in equally agreeable attendant circumstances; and conditions of equilibrium require that articles produced in less agreeable attendant circumstances (characterized by smelliness, risk or the lapse of time) must be kept sufficiently scarce to command a higher price. But if the lapse of time becomes an agreeable attendant circumstance, which is a quite possible case and already holds for many individuals, then, as I have said above,
it is the short processes which must be kept sufficiently scarce.
进而言之,还有各种理由来说明,为什么相对于包含在其中的劳动量而言,劳务和设备是稀少的,因而是昂贵的。例如,有臭味的生产过程必须支付一个较高的报酬,因为若不如此,人们就不会从事这些工作。有风险的生产过程也是如此。但是,我们不能创造一个有臭味的或者有风险的生产过程的生产率理论。总之,并不是所有的劳动都在同样令人满意的环境下完成的,均衡的条件要求在不太令人满意的环境下(以有臭味、有风险或者时间流逝为特点)生产出来的物品必须保持足够的稀缺性以获取高价。但是,如果时间的流逝变成一种令人满意的工作环境——这是一个十分可能的情况,并且,许多人都已经这样做——那么,就像我在上面说过的,这就是必须充分地保持稀缺的周期短的生产过程。
Given the optimum amount of roundaboutness, we shall, of course, select the most efficient roundabout processes which we can find up to the required aggregate. But the optimum amount itself should be such as to provide at the appropriate dates for that part of consumers' demand which it is desired to defer. In optimum conditions, that is to say, production should be so organised as to produce in the most efficient manner compatible with delivery at the dates at which consumers' demand is expected to become effective. It is no use to produce for delivery at a different date from this, even though the physical output could be increased by changing the date of delivery;-- except in so far as the prospect of a larger meal, so to speak, induces the consumer to anticipate or postpone the hour of dinner. If, after hearing full particulars of the meals he can get by fixing dinner at different hours, the consumer is expected to decide in favour of 8 o'clock, it is the business of the cook to provide the best dinner he can for service at that hour, irrespective of whether 7.30, 8 o'clock or 8.30 is the hour which would suit him best if time counted for nothing, one way or the other, and his only task was to produce the absolutely best dinner. In some phases of society it may be that we could get physically better dinners by dining later than we do; but it is equally conceivable in other phases that we could get better dinners by dining earlier. Our theory must, as I have said above, be applicable to both contingencies.
当生产过程的最优的迂回性的比例给定时,我们当然要选择最有效率的迂回生产过程,我们可以使它达到所要求的总数。所谓适度的数量是指能够在适当的日期提供给消费者以满足他们已延迟了的需求。也就是说,在合适的情形下,生产应该这样加以组织,以使生产在最有效率的状态下进行,并且能够在消费者的需求变成有效需求的日期交货。为在与此不同的日期交货而生产是没有用的,即使改变交货日期可以增加实物产量——除去,打个比方说,一顿丰盛的饮食可以引诱消费者提前或者延迟用餐以外,如果听说在不同钟点开始的盛宴的全部特殊内容后,消费者决定在八点钟用餐,那么,厨师的职责就是要在那个钟点提供出佳肴来。然而,对厨师来说,如果不考虑具体时间,那么,不管是七点半、八点,还是八点半,都无所谓,都是合适的时间,他唯一的任务就是做出绝对上等的饭菜。在某种社会生活状态下,开饭的时间晚一点,我们可能得到比较好的饭菜。我在上文已经说过,一种理论必须能够适用于两种可能性。
If the rate of interest were zero, there would be an optimum interval for any given article between the average date of input and the date of consumption, for which labour cost would be a minimum;--a shorter process of production would be less efficient technically, whilst a longer process would also be less efficient by reason of storage costs and deterioration. If, however, the rate of interest exceeds zero, a new element of cost is introduced which increases with the length of the process, so that the optimum interval will be shortened, and the current input to provide for the eventual delivery of the article will have to be curtailed until the prospective price has increased sufficiently to cover the increased cost--a cost which will be increased both by the interest charges and also by the diminished efficiency of the shorter method of production. Whilst if the rate of interest falls below zero (assuming this to be technically possible), the opposite is the case. Given the prospective consumers' demand, current input to-day has to compete, so to speak, with the alternative of starting input at a later date; and, consequently, current input will only be worth while when the greater cheapness, by reason of greater technical efficiency or prospective price changes, of producing later on rather than now, is insufficient to offset the smaller return from negative interest. In the case of the great majority of articles it would involve great technical inefficiency to start up their input more than a very modest length of time ahead of their prospective consumption. Thus even if the rate of interest is zero, there is a strict limit to the proportion of prospective consumers' demand which it is profitable to begin providing for in advance; and, as the rate of interest rises, the proportion of the prospective consumers' demand for which it pays to produce to-day shrinks pari passu.
如果利息率为零,则对于任何一个物品来说,在投入生产要素生产该物品的平均时期和消费的平均时期之间,有一个最优的时期间隔。所谓最优的时期间隔,是指在此期间劳动成本是最低的。——短于最优时期间隔的生产过程可能由于技术原因而具有较低的效率,而长于最优时期间隔的生产过程则会由于储藏费用和实物陈腐而导致低效率。然而,如果利息率大于零,那就会出现新的成本项目。由于这一成本项目会伴随生产过程的时间延长而增长,因而生产的最优时期间隔将会缩短。同时,为了未来该物品的交货而当期投入的生产要素也必定会减少,直至该物品的未来价格提高到足以弥补成本增加的程度时为止——成本的增加一方面来自利息费用,另一方面来自由于缩短生产过程而带来的效率降低。如果利息率下降到小于零的程度(假设这在技术上是可行的),则情况正好相反。当消费者未来的需求既定时,今天把生产要素投入生产可以说和另一可供选择的办法,即在较后的时期投入生产相互竞争。结果,只有当推后日期的生产,由于较高的技术效率和未来价格的变化而得到的收益不足以弥补从负利息率中得到的微小回报时,现在开始生产才是值得的。对于绝大多数物品而言,如果想要在比未来消费日期以前的适当时期还要长的时间来开始生产,那么,这会导致技术上较严重的低效率。这样,即使利息率等于零,要想在事前为未来的消费需求进行有利可图的生产,提前生产的比例具有一个严格的限度。当利息率上升时,今天为未来的消费需求进行生产所占的比例会随之缩小。
III
We have seen that capital has to be kept scarce enough in the long-period to have a marginal efficiency which is at least equal to the rate of interest for a period equal to the life of the capital, as determined by psychological and institutional conditions. What would this involve for a society which finds itself so well equipped with capital that its marginal efficiency is zero and would be negative with any additional investment; yet possessing a monetary system, such that money will "keep" and involves negligible costs of storage and safe custody, with the result that in practice interest cannot be negative; and, in conditions of full employment, disposed to save?
我们已经看到,资本必须在长时期内保持足够的稀缺性,以使其边际效率在资本的使用寿命期间至少等于利息率的水平,而利息率由心理的和制度的状况决定。这对于具有下述特征的社会会引发什么问题呢?这个社会发现它的资本设备 如此充足,以致其资本边际效率为零,而且当有追加投资时,利息率还将是负数;同时,它还有一个货币制度,使货币被“保存”起来的储存费用为零,而且安全可靠,以致在现实中利息率不能是零。那么,在充分就业的情形下,该社会还会倾向于进行相当大数量的储蓄吗?
If, in such circumstances, we start from a position of full employment, entrepreneurs will necessarily make losses if they continue to offer employment on a scale which will utilise the whole of the existing stock of capital. Hence the stock of capital and the level of employment will have to shrink until the community becomes so impoverished that the aggregate of saving has become zero, the positive saving of some individuals or groups being offset by the negative saving of others. Thus for a society such as we have supposed, the position of equilibrium, under conditions of laissez-faire, will be one in which employment is low enough and the standard of life sufficiently miserable to bring savings to zero. More probably there will be a cyclical movement round this equilibrium position. For if there is still room for uncertainty about the future, the marginal efficiency of capital will occasionally rise above zero leading to a "boom", and in the succeeding "slump" the stock of capital may fall for a time below the level which will yield a marginal efficiency of zero in the long run. Assuming correct foresight, the equilibrium stock of capital which will have a marginal efficiency of precisely zero will, of course, be a smaller stock than would correspond to full employment of the available labour; for it will be the equipment which corresponds to that proportion of unemployment which ensures zero saving.
在此情形中,假设我们立足于充分就业,如果企业家们继续以利用当期全部资本存量的规模提供就业,则他们必然遭受损失。因此,资本存量和就业水平必须减少,直至社会贫穷到总储蓄量等于零时为止。这时,社会上的某些个人或者集体的正储蓄为另一部分的人负储蓄所抵消。由此可见,对我们所设想的社会而言,在自由放任的条件下,均衡就是这样一种均衡,即就业处于足够低的水平,生活水平足够贫苦以致储蓄为零。更可能的情况是,围绕这一均衡位置产生周期性波动,因为如果社会对未来仍然存在不确定性,经济活动也就有伸缩性。资本的边际效率有可能偶然地上升到零以上,从而把经济引向“繁荣”。而在继之得来的“萧条”中,资本存量在一段时间内可能下降,下降到使得资本的边际效率长期处于低于零的水平。假定对将来的预见是正确的,那么,边际效率正好为零的、处于均衡状态的资本存量必然要小于能够使得现有的劳动者充分就业的资本量,二者的差额会使得一部分人失业,从而能确保储蓄为零。
The only alternative position of equilibrium would be given by a situation in which a stock of capital sufficiently great to have a marginal efficiency of zero also represents an amount of wealth sufficiently great to satiate to the full the aggregate desire on the part of the public to make provision for the future, even with full employment, in circumstances where no bonus is obtainable in the form of interest. It would, however, be an unlikely coincidence that the propensity to save in conditions of full employment should become satisfied just at the point where the stock of capital reaches the level where its marginal efficiency is zero. If, therefore, this more favourable possibility comes to the rescue, it will probably take effect, not just at the point where the rate of interest is vanishing, but at some previous point during the gradual decline of the rate of interest.
唯一的另一种均衡位置是这样一种情况,在这里,资本量大到足以使边际效率为零,代表财富量也大到足以满足公众在充分就业和没有以利息形式的红利的情况下所愿意为未来储备的数量。然而,这是一个不可能的巧合,因为在充分就业条件下的储蓄倾向,未必正好在资本存量达到其边际效率为零时得到满足。所以,如果这一比较有利的可能性果真能发生补救作用的话,那么,它的作用可能发生之处,并不在利息率为零之点,而在利息率为零之前的某个逐渐下降之点。
We have assumed so far an institutional factor which prevents the rate of interest from being negative, in the shape of money which has negligible carrying costs. In fact, however, institutional and psychological factors are present which set a limit much above zero to the practicable decline in the rate of interest. In particular the costs of bringing borrowers and lenders together and uncertainty as to the future of the rate of interest, which we have examined above, set a lower limit, which in present circumstances may perhaps be as high as 2 or 2 1/2 per cent. on long term. If this should prove correct, the awkward possibilities of an increasing stock of wealth, in conditions where the rate of interest can fall no further under laissez-faire, may soon be realised in actual experience. Moreover if the minimum level to which it is practicable to bring the rate of interest is appreciably above zero, there is less likelihood of the aggregate desire to accumulate wealth being satiated before the rate of interest has reached its minimum level.
前面我们曾假定制度因素使得持有货币的费用微不足道,从而可以阻止利息率不能取负值。然而,事实上,是制度因素和心理因素共同使得利息率的下降被在远高于零的水平。特别是我们在前文已经考察过的,把借款者和贷款者接洽到一起的费用以及对未来利息率的不确定性规定了一个利息率的下限。在当前情形下,长期利息率的下限或许是2%或者2%。如果这个说法被证明是正确的,则在自由放任的情形中利息率不可能进一步下降的条件下,财富量的增长难以实现的可能性在现实中很快就会表现出来。此外,如果利息率实际上所能达到的最低水平明显地高于零时,则在利息率达到最低水平之前,要使整个社会积累财富的愿望得到满足就会更加困难。
The post-war experiences of Great Britain and the United States are, indeed, actual examples of how an accumulation of Wealth, so large that its marginal efficiency has fallen more rapidly than the rate of interest can fall in the face of the prevailing institutional and psychological factors, can interfere, in conditions mainly of laissez-faire, with a reasonable level of employment and with the standard of life which the technical conditions of production are capable of furnishing.
战后英国和美国的经验提供了实际例证,表明为何积累的财富如此之多,以致它们的边际效率的下降更快于利息率在当期社会制度和心理因素影响下所可能有的降低程度。这一情况在以自由放任为主的社会条件下,妨碍了生产技术条件所可能提供的合理的就业水平和生活水平。
It follows that of two equal communities, having the same technique but different stocks of capital, the community with the smaller stock of capital may be able for the time being to enjoy a higher standard of life than the community with the larger stock; though when the poorer community has caught up the rich--as, presumably, it eventually will--then both alike will suffer the fate of Midas. This disturbing conclusion depends, of course, on the assumption that the propensity to consume and the rate of investment are not deliberately controlled in the social interest but are mainly left to the influences of laissez-faire.
由此可见,两个具有相同技术和不同资本存量的社会,其中资本存量较少的社会暂时可能享受到比资本存量较多的社会更高的生活水平,而当资本较贫乏的社会赶上资本较丰裕的社会之后——可以设想,最终会做到这点——于是这两个社会都会遭到希腊神话中那位贪财的祈求得到点石成金法术的迈达斯国王的命运。这个令人不安的结论,当然,取决于这样的假设:消费倾向和投资量都没有从社会利益出发人为地予以控制,而是在自由放任的支配下自发地发展。
If--for whatever reason--the rate of interest cannot fall as fast as the marginal efficiency of capital would fall with a rate of accumulation corresponding to what the community would choose to save at a rate of interest equal to the marginal efficiency of capital in conditions of full employment, then even a diversion of the desire to hold wealth towards assets, which will in fact yield no economic fruits whatever, will increase economic well-being. In so far as millionaires find their satisfaction in building mighty mansions to contain their bodies when alive and pyramids to shelter them after death, or, repenting of their sins, erect cathedrals and endow monasteries or foreign missions, the day when abundance of capital will interfere with abundance of output may be postponed. "To dig holes in the ground," paid for out of savings, will increase, not only employment, but the real national dividend of useful goods and services. It is not reasonable, however, that a sensible community should be content to remain dependent on such fortuitous and often wasteful mitigations when once we understand the influences upon which effective demand depends.
如果——不论何种理由——利息率的下降速度没有在一定资本积累率下的资本边际效率下降的速度那么快,这个资本积累率相当于在充分就业条件下,社会所选定的与资本边际效率相等的基于一定利息率下的储蓄量,那么,即使把积累财富的愿意转向拥有实际上不能提供任何经济产出的资产,也会增加社会福利。以亿万富豪们为了寻求满足,在活着的时候建造豪宅以容其身,死后修建金字塔以保护他们的遗体,或者为了忏悔他们的罪恶而兴建教堂,捐赠教会或者国外的布道使团而论,资本充裕损害产品充裕之日可以推迟。“在地上挖掘窟窿”,从储蓄中支付,不仅可以增加就业,还可以增加由有用的物品和劳务所构成的国民收入。然而,一旦我们理解了这些缓解有效需求不足的方法不仅是偶然起作用的、而且往往是浪费的之后,明智的社会继续使用它们就是不合理的。
IV
Let us assume that steps are taken to ensure that the rate of interest is consistent with the rate of investment which corresponds to full employment. Let us assume, further, that State action enters in as a balancing factor to provide that the growth of capital equipment shall be such as to approach saturation-point at a rate which does not put a disproportionate burden on the standard of life of the present generation.
我们假设,人们已经采取步骤保证利息率符合充分就业下的投资量的要求。让我们进一步假设,国家的行动已作为一种控制因素使得资本设备的增长接近饱和点,而且又使达到饱和点的速度不致对现在这一代人的生活水平形成过分的负担。
On such assumptions I should guess that a properly run community equipped with modern technical resources, of which the population is not increasing rapidly, ought to be able to bring down the marginal efficiency of capital in equilibrium approximately to zero within a single generation; so that we should attain the conditions of a quasi-stationary community where change and progress would result only from changes in technique, taste, population and institutions, with the products of capital selling at a price proportioned to the labour, etc., embodied in them on just the same principles as govern the prices of consumption-goods into which capital-charges enter in an insignificant degree.
基于这样的假设,我推测,一个运行良好、具有现代技术资源、人口的增长不太快的社会,在一代人的期间内,把充分就业时的资本边际效率降低到大致为零的地步,应该说是可能的。此时,我们将处于一个准静止状态的社会,在这里,社会变化和进步将单纯来自技术、嗜好、人口和制度的变革;资本产品的售价体现着与需求资本较少的消费品价格确定的相同原则,即价格与包含在产品中的劳动量等成比例。
If I am right in supposing it to be comparatively easy to make capital-goods so abundant that the marginal efficiency of capital is zero, this may be the most sensible way of gradually getting rid of many of the objectionable features of capitalism. For a little reflection will show what enormous social changes would result from a gradual disappearance of a rate of return on accumulated wealth. A man would still be free to accumulate his earned income with a view to spending it at a later date. But his accumulation would not grow. He would simply be in the position of Pope's father, who, when he retired from business, carried a chest of guineas with him to his villa at Twickenham and met his household expenses from it as required.
如果我设想,相对来说,使得资本品如此充裕以致资本的边际效率为零比较容易做到的话,那么,这可能是逐渐消除资本主义的许多不良特点的比较明智的方法,因为稍加思考就可以感觉到:已积累起来的财富逐渐丧失一定的报酬率将会导致多么大的社会变革!一个人仍然可以任意地为了以后的支出而将其所挣得的收入累积起来。但是,他累积起来财富不会增值。他只能像波普之父那样,当他从工商业经营中退休以后,带着一箱畿尼回到他的家乡特威克南,以此来应付他的家庭开支。
Though the rentier would disappear, there would still be room, nevertheless, for enterprise and skill in the estimation of prospective yields about which opinions could differ. For the above relates primarily to the pure rate of interest apart from any allowance for risk and the like, and not to the gross yield of assets including the return in respect of risk. Thus unless the pure rate of interest were to be held at a negative figure, there would still be a positive yield to skilled investment in individual assets having a doubtful prospective yield. Provided there was some measurable unwillingness to undertake risk, there would also be a positive net yield from the aggregate of such assets over a period of time. But it is not unlikely that, in such circumstances, the eagerness to obtain a yield from doubtful investments might be such that they would show in the aggregate a 'negative net yield.
虽然食利者将会消失,然而,在估计未来收益方面,仍然有企业管理和经营技巧发挥作用的余地,当然意见可以有所不同,因为,上文所说主要是就把风险或者类似项目的报酬排除在外的纯利息率而言,而不是指把风险或者项目的报酬包括在内的资产的毛收益。因此,除非纯利息率被维持在一个负值上,否则对未来收益有疑问的个人资产的有技巧的投资仍然会有正值的收益。如果有某种明显的不愿意承担风险,那么,从这类总资产中,在一段时间内,也仍然会有正值的收益。然而,在这种情形下,由于有些人急于想从有疑问的投资中获得收益,结果这种投资的净收益的总和还可能是负值。
