
Abstract and Key words
1. Introduction 1
2. The Definition and Development of Symbolism 2
3. Symbols 3
3.1 The Attitude of "The Thinker"---Symbol of Yank’s Inability to Think 3
3.2 The White color---Symbol of Capitalism and Oppression 4
3.3 Ape---Symbol of Man in a Primitive State in Which People Lose Their Value 4
3.4 Steamship---Symbol of Society 5
3.5 Symbol of Cage 6
3.5.1 The Stokehole and Jail 6
3.5.2 Yank’s Seeking Process of Belonging 7
3.5.3 Mildred’s Situation and Destiny 8
4. Conclusion 8
Bibliography 10
-
Abstract: The Hairy Ape is one of the representative works of Eugene O’Neill, a play which can give full expression to O’Neill’s style of drama. In order to comprehend the theme, this article analyzes different symbols in the play, including the stokehole, jail, the steamship, the Ape, the attitude of Rodin’s “The Thinker”, the color of white, Yank’s seeking process of belonging and Mildred’s destination.
Key words: Symbolism; Yank; Ape; Oppression
摘要:《毛猿》是著名戏剧家尤金•奥尼尔的代表作品之一,它集中体现了奥尼尔戏剧的风格。本论通过分析《毛猿》中不同实物的象征含义,以理解其主题,文包括:游轮前舱,监狱,轮船,毛猿, 罗丹的雕塑思想者,白色,杨克寻找归属的过程以及米尔德里德的命运。
关键词:象征主义;杨克;毛猿;压制剥削
On Symbolism in The Hairy Ape
1. Introduction
Eugene O’Neill, the greatest dramatist in America in the early 20th century, is an expert in using symbolism in his works. His well-known play--The Hairy Ape, has been discussed and researched by critics and scholars both at home and abroad. The main focuses of discussion are about the root of the tragedy and its expressionism. Many critics contribute to the tragic root to two points: the background of the society and the character flaws in Yank himself.
YangYan(2010,61) and ZhouJing(2003,54) think that, the whole society is the main root of the tragedy. In O’Neill’s time, people were suffering an intellectual crisis, because they have lost their absolute value, as Nietz says “God is dead”, which made people feel confused and begun to establish another worship--money or commercial goods. Besides, the relationship between people is indifferent and remote.
Yank’s character flaws also lead to the tragedy. Wang Haimei(2011,83) YangYan(2010,61) and JiaHong(2000,60) hold the belief that Yank, caged like an animal, is not aware of this situation. His pride and initial self-confidence are shattered when he meets Mildred. After vain efforts trying to find his belonging in the human society, Yank tries to be brother to a gorilla in the zoo. But being a civilized, thinking human being with a soul, he cannot find satisfaction merely in animal instinct, for the initial harmony with nature is gone forever.
Some experts, who study the relationship between the life of O’Neill and tragedy of the drama, come to the conclusion that the two points are closely related. O’Neill was exposed to a great deal of misery: the broken family, the rough pursuit of his study, the unpleasant personal life with his lover.YangYan(2010,61) and JiaHong(2000,60) argue that, O’Neill’s miserable experiences cause him to belive that life is doomed to be a tragedy. Therefore, he could express the tragic value in his work so vividly and successfully.
A majority of scholars pay much attention to the expressionism in the play. It’s widely believed that O’Neill applies different symbols, monologue and masks to reveal the soul of Yank and the theme of the drama.
O’Neill is greatly good at using symbols to express the profound meanings. Niu Ying(2010,55) points out that the Ape symbolizes men in a primitive state who are free from class, technology and other elements of modern society. Steel is a symbol of both power and oppression. CaoWeijun(2012,18)suggests that the characters--Mildred and her aunt, are symbolic of the artificiality and enervation caused by the contemporary mechanized and materialized urban life. Niu Ying(2010,56) and Cao Weijun(2012,18) argue that Yank is a symbol of a sort of person who loses his harmony with the world. He cannot merge into other people's life and has dropped into embarrassment. He wants to change his situation, but his efforts are all in vain.
The monologue is another technique of expressionism. Satish Dange(2009,38) and Wang Xiaoyu(2010,52) write that the characters in The Hairy Ape express themselves briefly, often in monologue which reveals their attitudes and what is passing within their souls. The “interior monologue” reveals the suffering and the anguished soul of Yank.
Other experts explore the meaning of the masks. Qian Xiu-jin(2010,66) holds the belief that the use of masks also contributes to the thematic effect of the play and also attaches importance to Yank’s separation from the world. The use of masks also reveals the deceitful appearances of the upper class — the rich are masked as the civilized and thoughtful men, however they are inconsiderate and snobbish towards others.
After reading many articles profoundly, this thesis focuses the eyes on O’Neill’s masterful use of symbolism in the play. Through all the symbols in the play, it is clear that The Hairy Ape reveals certain inner state of man whose seeking process of belonging becomes a part of his life.
2. The Definition and Development of Symbolism
Symbolism is an artistic and poetic movement or style using symbolic images and indirect suggestion to express mystical ideas, emotions, and states of mind. It originated in late 19th-century France and Belgium, with important figures including Mallarmé, Maeterlinck, Verlaine, Rimbaud, and Redon.
The symbolist movement in literature originated during the 1850s in France and lasted until about 1900. Symbolism exerted a profound influence on twentieth-century literature, bridging the transition from Realism to Modernism. Symbolism also exerted a strong influence on the arts, including theatre, painting, and music. The symbolists sought to convey very personal, irrational, and dream-like states of consciousness, relying heavily on metaphorical language to approximate, or symbolize, an eternal essence of being that, they believed, was abstracted from the scope of the five senses. These literary ideals developed as a reaction against the dominance of positivism, which emphasized rational thought, objectivity, and scientific method. Symbolism also represented a reaction against Realism and Naturalism in literature, which sought to accurately represent the external world of nature and human society through descriptions of objective reality. Stylistically, the symbolists emphasized the inherent musicality of language, developed the use of vers libre (free verse), and modernized the existing form of the prose poem. The symbolists were greatly influenced by the poetry of Charles Baudelaire, whose Les fleurs du mal embodied many of their literary ideals. In addition to Baudelaire, the central figures of French Symbolism are the poets Stéphane Mallarmé, Paul Verlaine, and Arthur Rimbaud. French Symbolism affected international literature of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, in particular, inspiring the Russian symbolist movement, which developed in the 1880s. The literature of Germany, Great Britain, Japan, the United States, and Turkey was also influenced by Symbolism. Though poetry dominated the symbolist movement, great works of fiction and drama were also written by adherents of Symbolism.(Symbolism,Oxforddictionary,P556, Para2)
3. Symbols
Symbolism within The Hairy Ape is an obvious means to indicate the whole play’s theme. For instance, ape symbolizes human beings in a state of nature. Another symbol--the steel cages, represents great strength and oppression. The ship reveals the class system--the upper class on the top of the deck and the workers below in the forecastle. Besides, there are many other symbols in the play-- the attitude of Rodin’s “The Thinker”, Yank’s seeking process of belonging, Mildred’s destiny and the color of white. They all serve as different symbols. These symbols are vital because they heighten Yank’s struggle and signify class structure and the effects of industrialization on workers.
3.1 The Attitude of “The Thinker”--- Symbol of Yank’s Inability to Think
Rodin’s statue ‘The Thinker” is perhaps the society’s most distinguishable symbol of thought. The “attitude” of the statue in the play reveals Yank’s attempt to think and his need to think, but in reality he cannot think himself and he doesn’t know how to do it.
Every time Yank meets an obstacle that cannot be tackled by any other means but thought, O’Neill’s stage direction calls for the actor to take the position of “The Thinker”.
In the Scene Four,Yank and Paddy go to the Fifth Avenue to take revenge on Mildred. The rich people regard Yank and Paddy as the invisible air. Even Yank insults and uses the violence to threaten them, he cannot draw any attention from them. He feels insulted and raged and this is the first time to pose the attitude of Rodin’s statue “The Thinker”
In the Scene Six, Yank is caught in the jail and crouches on the edge of his cot in the attitude of Rodin’s “The Thinker”. “His face is spotted with black and blue bruises. A blood-stained bandage is wrapped around his head.” (O’Neill, Scene Six, Para.27)
Obviously, he is exposed to violence from the cop. He cannot make it out that why he deserves the severe beats. Another point is when Yank reads the newspaper about I.W.W.(the Industrial Workers of the World), he is seated in the state of Rodin’s “The Thinker”. This is the second time that the pose appears.
When visiting the organization I.W.W., Yank is thrown out of the office. He lands on the sprawling in the middle of the street. He sits there, brooding, in the attitude of Rodin’s “The Thinker”. He is desperate to make sense of his situation and to understand why the union throws him out. Because Yank cannot process the problems before him, he is sent reeling backward on the evolutionary path—unable to function in modern society.
The real ape in Scene Eight is the only other character that takes “The Thinker” position. The gigantic animal himself is seen squatting on his haunches on a bench in much the same attitude as Rodin’s “The Thinker”. This habitual body position reveals Yank’s animalistic state —his mode of thought is as primitive as Ape’s. The ape is not included in the class or social structures of the human world. Like Ape, Yank sits in a cage and wonders how he can join the rest of society like his human counterpart and imitates the thinking attitude.
3.2 The White Color---Symbol of Capitalism and Oppression
The white color symbolizes the ghost-like upper class and the exploited, humanity-oppressed social background, which also symbolizes the horror and morbidity rooted in people’s soul and the death people have to live with. When Mildred goes to the stokehole to see how people on the other side live, she wears a white dress, like a white ghost. Mildred is the representative of the upper lass and white sometimes leaves people an oppressive and anxious feeling. In the Hairy Ape, the white is the symbolic of the oppression and exploitation from the upper class. In the Scene Two, O’Neill describes Mildred with a pale, pretty face marred by a self-conscious expression of disdainful superiority and looks fretful, nervous and discontented, bored by her own anemia. She lacks new blood to nourish herself, so does the capitalism society which is lifeless without any vitality. The morbidity of the upper class is revealed by taking the advantage of the stage direction. While Mildred is talking with her aunt, O’Neill uses the words, such as “Dreamily”( O’Neill, Scene Two, Para.9),”In a passionless tone”(O’Neill,SceneTwo,Para.11) and “Drawling”(O’Neill,Scene Two,Para.13) to describe Mildred.
Besides, Mildred’s white dress has a very strong impact on Yank and other workers. When Mildred appears in the stokehole, all the workers are frightened. The confrontation between the workers and Mildred is, in fact, the confrontation between the upper class and the lower class. In the eye of Yank, Mildred is a “white apparition”(O’Neill, Scene3,Para.10) and she is “dolled up all in white”(O’Neill, Scene 6,Para.15) Also, Mildred who represents the upper class, is always in white and her bone, her face seem to be white, too. She rejects the second engineer’s warning stubbornly and insists in wearing a white dress when she visits the stokehole, claiming that she has fifty white dresses like that. It is clear that the oppression from the upper class is lingering all around and it is the chains that the working class can never break away from. Besides, to some extent, the upper class is obsessed with the material indulgence and is unwilling to get rid of it.
The white is also the symbol of privilege. Mildred, the representative of upper class, enjoys the privilege and of course she won’t break away from it.
3.3 Ape---Symbol of Man in a Primitive State
Ape appears everywhere in The Hairy Ape:
Mildred thinks she sees an ape and even calls Yank “filthy beast!”(O’Neill, Scene three,Para.13). The secretary of I.W.W calls him “the brainless ape” (O’Neill, Scene Seven, Para52). Yank even agrees that he is an ape. So as soon as he comes to conscious in the jail, he thinks that he is in the zoo and tells people he is an ape. “I'm a hairy ape, get me?(O’Neill, Scene 6, Para.11)and thinks the guard as the zoo keeper in Scene Six“De guard? Yuh mean de keeper, don't yuh?” (O’Neill, Scene 6, Para.19) What’s more, there is a real ape in Scene Eight.
As discussed above, the ape symbolizes man in a primitive and natural state before technology, complex language structures, complex thought or money is necessary. The ape is only concerned about survival. Thus Yank, constantly compared with apes, does share some similarities with our human beings’ early primate relatives. The author describes Yank directly and even intentionally makes the description as resemble as a monkey“He whirls defensively with a snarling, murderous growl” (O’Neill, Scene 3, Para.19). From the description, O’Neill presents Yank’s resemblance to ape by sound. When the audience read here, a sound of growling lingers in our mind. “crouching to spring, his lips drawn back o'ver his teeth, his small eyes gleaming ferociously.” (O’Neill, Scene 3, Para.19). O’Neill tries his best to highlight the Yank’s primitive state, not only from his physical behavior, but also from his expression in a specific level.
The aim of vivid comparison between Yank and ape is to stress that Yank, like the ape, struggles with thought and doesn't understand the class system. He has little language skills. In addition, male apes are known to be very territorial, obstinate, bul-headed and aggressive—all descriptors could be used to describe Yank. Therefore, it is industrialization that makes a strong person into a primitive animal. Yank, a strong man, is degenerated to an animal, losing his own value and personality.
3.4 Steamship---Symbol of Society
The whole steamship is the embodiment of the society in the industrialized time and the layout of the ship is symbolic of the strictly-leveled society.
It is the workers in the bottom of the ship that power the ship forwards. They represent people in the bottom of society. The stokehole, where they stay all the time, is crowded and full of leaping flame.
What’s more, not only their working environment is terrible, but also their value and creativity have been stripped of and they are like a “chained gorilla”(O’Neill, Scene Three,Para.Three). They do the same job again and again with no creativity, with no thinking. They bend over, looking neither to right or left, handling their shovels as if they are part of their bodies. “But there is order in it, rhythm, a mechanical regulated recurrence, a tempo. And rising above all, making the air hum with the quiver of liberated energy, the roar of leaping flames in the furnaces, the monotonous throbbing beat of the engines.”(O’Neill, Scene Three,Para.one)
Nearly all the men here are dressed in dungaree pants and heavy ugly shoes. Some wear singlets but the majority are stripped to the waist and they shout, curse and laugh. Their figures, attached to the environment in the stokehole, are just like the beast in a cage .
From the description, “this scene is one of the beautiful, vivid life of the sea all about—sunshine on the deck in a great flood, the fresh sea wind blowing across it.”(O’Neill,Scene Two, Para.9), it is evident that the rich, like Mildred and her aunt are on the top of the ship, far above from the stokehole and they can enjoy the sunshine and sea breeze. The ocean that surrounds them is infinitely spacious and gives them the feeling of freedom.
When Mildred and Yank meet each other in the stokehole, they are all threatened. This, in fact, is the confrontation between the upper class and the lower class. Yank whirls defensively with a snarling, murderous growl, crouching to spring, his lips drawn back over his teeth, his small eyes gleaming ferociously. He glares into Mildred’s eyes, turned to stone. As for her, when he complains about the whistles, she has listened, paralyzed with horror, terror, her whole personality crushed, beaten in, collapsed, by the terrific impact of this unknown, abysmal brutality, naked and shameless. As she looks at his gorilla-like face, she utters a low, choking cry and shrinks away from him, putting both hands up before her eyes to shut out the sight of his face to protect herself. This startles Yank to a reaction. His mouth falls open, his eyes grow bewildered. Then Mildred faints away. The second engineer and fourth engineer carry her quickly away. Rage and bewildered fury rush back on Yank. He feels himself insulted in some unknown fashion in the very heart of his pride. From the vivid description, the upper class seems to be on the edge of crush and enervated, while the lower class is wild, with no civilization.
Both of the stokehole and the promenade deck epitomize the lifestyle and characteristics of upper and lower classes. Yank is especially affected by Mildred because she presents a world he doesn't belong to and he has never heard about before. From all these, O’Neill reveals in The Hairy Ape how deeply and rigidly the differences between two classes is inscribed into America, whether in cultural life or the financial life.
3.5 Symbol of Cage
Cage , as the main symbols, takes a vital function in the play. The stokehole and jail are the steel cages, which imprison the hero’s physical body, symbolizing the oppression from the upper class. What’s more, there are invisible cages in the play--Yank’s seeking process of belonging and Mildred’s destiny. They also play a vital role to reveal the theme in a more profound level.
3.5.1 The Stokehole and Jail
The stokehole is the first cage appearing in the play. At the beginning of the play, there is a description about the firemen’s forecastle. The space is cramped and in the bowels of ship, imprisoned by the white steel. The lines of bunks, the uprights supporting them, cross each other like the steel framework of a cage. The setting gives the impression of a cage and creates the effect of cramped, rigid and lifeless feeling. The stokehole, made up of by the steel, symbolizes the great power and the oppression forced on the working class.
The stokehole is also the symbol of the highly developed technology in the industrialized time. Workers, who are caged and abused, are reduced into apes in the zoo. Both of their bodies and thoughts are out of freedom. They lose the value of life and the nature of human-being are oppressed. The ceiling of stokehole crushes down upon the workers’ heads. They cannot stand upright. This results in the natural stooping posture. There is no doubt that the design of the firemen’s stokehole resembles a cage. The environment leaves us an impression that it is not suitable for human-being but animal and reduces the workers into machines and into an animal-like state. However, Yank doesn’t feel uncomfortable and oppressed. On the contrary, he feels proud of his job and disdains people in the upper class. “We're better men dan dey are, ain't we? Well den, we belong, don't we? We belong and dey don't. Dat's all.” (O’Neill, Scene One, Para.15) It seems that the whole world would stop and die without him. He even regards the smoke and dust as his food and drinking. He is enjoyable about all these and exclaims that “Dat's fresh air for me! Dat's food for me! I'm new, get me? Hell, sure, dat's my fav'rite climate. I eat it up! I git fat on it! It's me makes it hot! Sure, on'y for me everyting stops. It all goes dead, get me?”(O’Neill, Scene One, Para.21) Yank, with such a pride, his body is embarred in the stokehole and his thought is also in confinement.
Besides, in the stokehole, the author calls the workers as “ a beast in a cage”(O’Neill, Scene one, Para.one) . It is evident that O’Neill creates a gloomy atmosphere and the stokers in it are also in a primitive state; they resemble the appearance of Neanderthal Man.
Another symbol of the cage is the jail. The setting of Scene Six is the prison on Blackwells Islands.
“The cells extend back diagonally from right front to left rear. They do not stop, but disappear in the dark background as if they ran on, numberless, into infinity.”(O’Neill, Scene 6, Para.One). The jail is also a visible and touchable cage. The narrow corridor, the low celling and the heavy steel bars reinforce the figure of Yank as a desperate beast.
When Yank finds himself in a real cell behind bars, he supposes that he is an ape in the zoo startling as if awakening from a dream and reaching out and shaking the bars. He seems to speak to himself “Steel. Dis is de Zoo, huh?”(O’Neill, Scene 6, Para.2) ,“I’m a hairy ape, get me?”(O’Neill, Scene 6, Para.7) . When his fellow prisoners ask him about his job, he rattles the bars with a sudden rage and asks in return “Ain't dat what youse all are—apes?” (O’Neill, Scene 6, Para.8) and claims that he is the fire that could melt the steel jail, lock and bars. This makes it clear that Yank doesn’t realize the reality and situation. He has been deprived of the freedom in the steel jail and what he has done is all in vain.
3.5.2 Yank’s Seeking Process of Belonging
The stokers’ working environment is extremely abominable. In the stokehole, the murky air is full of coal dust, piling up masses of shadows everywhere. And a flood of terrific light and heat pours fully upon the workers. The stokehole, imprisoning the workers who work day and night, is fiercely hot even the Mildred calls it “the Hell” (O’Neill, Scene 2, Para.37) . The celling crushes down upon the workers’ heads. They cannot stand upright. In spite of the harsh environment, Yank is still confident and regards himself as the part of machine and the power that push the world forwards.
However, when Yank is confronted with Mildred directly, he is called the filthy beast. Before the ghost-like Mildred, he feels lost and resulted. His value is rejected and he begins to realize his trivial position lost in the civilized world.
With the mixture feeling of shame and rage, he rushes to the Fifth Avenue with the purpose to revenge and to prove his value. Consequently, he is caught in jail. At that time, he realizes that steel does not ‘belong’ any more and for now he is imprisoned by steel: “Steel! It don’t belong, dat’s what! Cages, cells, locks, bolts, barsdat’s what it means!”(O’Neill, Scene 6, Para.50) . This is his desperate cry. He seeks help for I.W.W, with the hope that he will find his belonging. His intention turns out to be a failure and the sense of shame and confusion is intensified. He comes to the realization that he does not belong to the the part of engine and also not belong to the human world. Under such a desperate circumstances, he seeks his affiliation in the zoo---the real cage. Yank attempts to be brother to the gorilla, which stands for nature. When he talks to the ape, he thinks that the gorilla understands him with an emphatic affirmation. The delusion, from another point, reflects his stong yearning for belonging and the gorilla is his last hope.
The last scene is Yank’s inner monologue, which reveals Yank’s agony, helplessness and desperation. Sometimes he is in conscious, while sometimes in confusion; sometimes in indignation and sometimes in deep pain. Eventually, he dies in the real cage, being killed by the gorilla.
Yank’s death makes the process of seeking belonging in a perfect circle. At the beginning, he is in a cage--the stokehole, while in the end, he is still in a cage-- the zoo. He has no belonging at first and he can not find the belonging at last. Yank’s failure in seeking for his belonging, to some extent, symbolizes that people of the working class cannot achieve their own value.
3.5.3Mildred’s Situation and Destiny
The leitmotif “cage” appears in Mildred.
She has been lavishly spoiled and she can enjoy every possible privilege that money can buy. In college, Mildred studies sociology and is on a crusade to help the poor. Mildred has previously worked with the disadvantaged people in New York’s Lower East Side. Mildred’s aunt is accompanying her to Europe where she will take part in more service projects. Though Mildred has more education and cultural experiences than Yank, she still cannot escape from her cultural identity. She is equally victimized by the strict-class system as Yank. Mildred describes herself as “a waste product”(O’Neill, Scene Two,Para.15) in the degenerative development of the Douglas generations. Her situation seems to be caged. She shares with Yank the need to find a sense of usefulness or belonging—the fates of Yank and Mildred are decided before they are born. She desperately searches to find an identity belonging to her own.
In detail, from the conversation between Mildred and her aunt , it is obvious that Mildred is nervous, disdainful, discontented with her life, although she is of great wealth and occupies a superior social position. She is vaguely conscious of being a poser and of lacking a purpose in life. There lies a yearning for the primitive and animalistic life. Her superior identity is born with her, which she can never get rid of, like the spots on the leopard, so she has to accept her fate of having lost personal autonomy. She wants to help others but she can do nothing, for her own attempts to become a full human have failed. Before the reality of class system, she is forced to adapt herself to such a situation. Mildred seems to be helpless and hopeless.
4.Conclusion
Through the analysis of symbols in the play, readers can understand the theme better--man’s attempt to discover himself and his place in the order of things. The Hairy Ape best reflects the modern man’s struggle for self-awareness and his effort to belong, to give life meaning. In the figure of Yank, O’Neill depicts the dilemma that the twentieth-century man has to face when his faith in the world of materialism is shattered and he can find nothing in himself or in his world that can replace this lost faith. He captures the mood of pessimism in the 1920s, when man discovered that while the industrial world provided him with material benefits, it also crushed and threatened to obliterate his humanity.
Ape in the play symbolizes the man before the civilization, it is physically strong but mentally weak. Its only concern is how to survive and it doesn’t care about the values of life and the sense of creativity. O’Neill depicts Yank as much resemble as the Ape from his appearance, actions and sounds, failing to understand the class system and the world of the upper class.
Another symbol--the stokehole is a real cage, representing the highly developed technology in the industrialized time. Workers working here are reduced into apes. They lose the value of life with the nature of human-being being oppressed.
When Yank begins to think, he is always posing a statue of Rodin’s “The Thinker”, which shows Yank’s need to think. However, because of the limitation of his knowledge and background, the repetition of the same work, and the morbid oppression from the upper class, Yank does’t have the ability to think. The posture is just a kind of inflexible imitation.
Mildred, the direct cause that makes Yank realize his real situation, is the representation of the upper class. Her destiny is an invisible cage. She is bored about her valueless life but she lacks the vigor and power to change that. Her destiny and situation is an invisible cage that locks her in a narrow world. She is also the victim of the class system.
The steamship is symbolic of the whole society or more specificly the strict class system. Mildred, the representative on the top of the ship, wears decently and can enjoy the blue sky,the sea breeze and the warm sunshine. In contrast, the workers, in the stokehole, work hard day and night. The environment is disgusting, filthy and ill-lighted.
In a deeper sense, all the symbols have an important function to reveal that Yank’s tragedy is the tragedy of the whole society. As a modern man, Yank has lost his old harmony with nature, the harmony which he used to have as an animal. He must struggle with his own fate. Before the industrialization, the struggle used to be with Gods. But it is now with himself, his own past, his attempt to belong.
Acknowledgements
It was really an arduous task to accomplish a B.A thesis. Many people gave me support and help in the process of writing my thesis. Firstly, I’d like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Mrs Tan Shu-min, who generously gave me her kindly help and instructions in the preparation and writing of this paper. Although she was very busy, she still helped me to collect relevant information and correct my paper word by word with patience, carefulness and encouragement.
Secondly, I would like to give my sincere thanks to my classmates who helped me a lot in broadening my view and inspiring my new ideas.
Thirdly, I want to give thanks to my Alma Mater—Xinjiang Agriculture University and all the teachers who have taught and helped me in College of Foreign Languages. They not only inject knowledge and energy into me, but also lead me into a completely new world. They educated and trained me to be a qualified English major.
Finally, my gratitude also goes to my dear father and mother whose love and support are together with me all the time and whose expectations urge me to finish this thesis successfully.
Bibliography
[1]. Mathias Sparr. Expressionistic Elements in Eugene O`Neill`s The Hairy Ape and The Great God Brow.
http://www.grin.com/en/e-book/94694/expressionistic-elements-in-eugene-o-neill-s-the-hairy-ape-and-the-great
[2].Emil Roy. Eugene O'Neill’s the Emperor Johns and The Hairy Ape As Mirror Plays.http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/411524?uid=3737800&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21101969376083
[3].EusebioV.Llácer.O’Neill’s The Emperor Jones and The Hairy Ape: The Alienation of the American Anti-hero Journal of American Studies of Turkey [J] 18 (2003) : 35-48 [7].
[4].LiuSha.The Symbolism in the Hairy Ape[J].Shodh, Samiksha aur Mulyankan 2009
[5]Satish Dange. EXPRESSIONISM IN ‘THE HAIRY APE [J]. (International Research Journal)—ISSN-0974-2832 Vol. II, Issue-6
[6].Kehl, D. G. The Hairy Ape. http://www.eoneill.com/texts/ha/contents.htm
[7].Rustein Robert. The Hairy Ape. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hairy_Ape
[8].Adler, Thomas P.The Hairy Ape. Themes, Motifs and Symbols. http://www.sparknotes.com/drama/hairyape/themes.html
[9].Thomas, Diwakar. Voice of the Voiceless: Eugene O'Neill's The Hairy Ape and GeorgeRyga'sIndian.http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/literary-criticism/59408457/voice-voiceless-eugene-oneills-hairy-ape-george-rygas-indian
[10].曹卫军. 困惑与挣扎———《毛猿》中“笼子”意象探析[J].时代文学.2012.3下半月.
[11].范能维. 论《毛猿》的现代主义艺术特征.[J] 韶关学院学报·社会科学.2006 年10月第27卷第10期.
[12].何志燕. 对奥尼尔《毛猿》的深切剖析[J].时代文学.2011.7下半月.
[13].贾宏. 试论尤金·奥尼尔《毛猿》的悲剧根源 [J].兵团职工大学学报.2000 年 第4期.
[14].贾爽.“空间的悲剧”———《毛猿》中扬克悲剧成因探析[J].科技风.2012 年1月(下).
[15].买玉红.迷失的自我-- 试论毛猿中的身份危机[J].开封教育学院学报.2006 年6月20 日.第26 卷 第2 期.
[16].牛应.尤金·奥尼尔的《毛猿》之表现主义特征商丘职业技术学院学报[J] 2010 年第4 期第9 卷(总第49 期)
[17].钱秀金.《无家可归, 无根可寻 论表现主义手法在毛猿中的运用》[J].哈尔滨学院学报.第31卷第3期2010年3月
[18].王海妹.从《毛猿》看奥尼尔悲剧精神[J].安徽文学. 2011 年第3 期.
[19].王丽.警示者,镜像,笼子巢湖学院学报[J]. 期巢湖学院学报. 2012年第14 卷第1 期总第112 期
[20].王月宾.《毛猿》中的异化与非人化[J].齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报. 2010年第1 期(总第113 期).
[21].王晓煌.论《毛猿》的表现形式[J].安徽文学.2010.3
[22].杨艳. 简析尤金·奥尼尔《毛猿》的悲剧根源及艺术手法[J].安徽文学.
2010年第8期.
[23].周晶. 现代人的悲剧——《毛猿》的主题探讨[J].高等函授学报.第16卷第一期2003年2月.
[24].张松炎.通向死亡的追寻之旅———析《毛猿》[J].科技信息外语论坛.2011年第21期.
